外文翻译--论化学课堂提问的有效设计.doc

论化学课堂提问的有效设计作者：陈婷婷（科学教育专业 09级） 指导老师：李艳灵摘要：教师的提问是启迪学生思维引发学生主动探究的一种有效途径。课堂提问的水平是评价教师教学的重要因素之一，教师需要用教学提问去点燃学生的思维之火，激发学生的批判性思维和创造性思维，让生成的答案体现出最显著的学习成果。有效提问可以增强学生的概念意识和概念理解，从而达到为理解而教，为理解而学的目的。教师理应为学生提供既有助于概念内化，又能帮助他们掌握可在课堂内外不同情境中运用的其他学习方法的教学。为进一步探讨有效提问，提高课堂有效性，实现理解性教学的目的，因而对此进行认真观察和研究。关键词：化学课堂；课堂提问；有效性 On the effective design of chemical Classroom QuestioningAbstract: Teachers questions arouse students initiative to explore an effective way to inspire students thinking. The Classroom Questioning level is one of the important factors of the evaluation of teachers teaching teachers teaching questions to ignite the fire of the students thinking, stimulate students critical thinking and creative thinking, to generate answers reflect the most significant learning outcomes. Effective questioning can enhance students conceptual awareness and understanding of the concept, so as to achieve the understanding of teaching, understanding the purpose of study. Teachers should provide students with both contribute to the concept, but also to help them acquire the use of different situations both inside and outside of the classroom teaching learning methods. In order to further explore effective questions, to improve the effectiveness of classroom to understand teaching purposes, and therefore this carefully observed and studied.Keywords: Chemistry class; ask questions in class; effectiveness河北师范大学本科生毕业论文翻译文章教师质量和学生成绩之间的关系是什么？探索性研究詹姆斯H.力度好托马斯J沃德东区D.塔克珍妮弗L辛德曼收稿日期：2007年12月/19接受日期：2008年1月25日/网上公布：13二月2008施普林格科学+商业媒体2008年，有限责任公司摘要本研究的主要目的是研究什么是有效的教学所定义的测量增加学生学习的教学行为和做法，重点。探索研究确定导致较高的学生学习收获的教师的教学行为和做法。关键词教师品质。教师有效性。老师不力。有效的教师。学生成绩。质疑。学生的学习收益1背景1.1问责需求目前需求已建立教育问责和结晶时出现了“精益求精”和“问责制”的基础上的改革，部分原因是由于小学和中学教育法案“（ESEA）1965年虽然人造卫星后时期。今天的前身是没有一个孩子掉队法案“（NCLB）是为了提高质量和公平强调问责组件的有效性的证据，要求标题我计划。在随后的几十年里，我们经历了一浪高过一浪的教育教学改革力度，最显着的主张在一个国家的风险在1983年“凝固问责20世纪60年代和70年代的趋势”和镀锌高标准的国家议程。过去40多年的改革努力主要集中在开发课程标准，来衡量学生的成绩，评估和办学水平的报告机制，公开解释结果。最近，重新授权的小学和中学教育法，更没有一个孩子掉队法案被称为旨在直接改善学生的考试成绩，以配合联邦政府的教育经费。1.2教师效能和学生成就的关系在过去的几十年里，许多研究都集中在定义有效的学校和教师的地球化学特征。当代的研究都集中在增值教与学之间的连接，这个评估过程，包括田纳西增值评估系统和达拉斯独立公立学校领导的例子。从这些和其他程序的数据分析提供了戏剧性的任课老师对学生的学习的影响方面的证据。有越来越多的研究批评田纳西价值评估系统研究。尽管如此，来自多个研究证据似乎证实了教师素质评估增值的方法疗效。在审查研究，利用增值建模的解释教师对学生成绩的影响，麦卡弗里等。得出结论，而增值的方法有一定的局限性，但它应该是一个另类，在检查教师素质。他们表示，“鉴于目前的知识关于VAM 增值建模的状态，我们预计，一些努力估计老师效应可能提供有用的信息，对教师。涵盖范围广泛的增值研究发现，有效的教师，的确，对于学生的成功至关重要。例如，Wright等。发现，有证据表明，低成就的学生更容易被放置效果较差的教师。因此，最需要帮助的学生正在教师至少能够指示。使用多年的数据库，桑德斯和他的同事们发现，当孩子，在小学三年级开始，被放置3高的表演老师在一排，他们拿下，平均，在第96百分位在田纳西州的全州数学评估结束时五年级。当孩子被安置相媲美的成就的历史，从三年级开始的三低一排表演教师，他们的平均得分相同的数学评估是在第44百分位，产生了52个百分点差。1.3有效教师的素质作为这项研究的概念框架尺寸的特点合成的荟萃审查现存的研究2002年，力度好教师效能。从这次审查中，有效的教师的素质分为专业教学，学生评估，学习环境，教师的个人素质（表1）的尺寸。2方法2.1第一部分：识别有效教师2.1.1设定及目标人群目前的研究的数据收集在位于弗吉尼亚州的一个中等规模的城市学区的小学三年级学生和教师。学区有36所学校，学生人数约23,000，和教师近1500人口。学生总人数的60，主要是非洲裔和35的白色;学生人口约2的接受ESL服务。本研究选取的样本包括定期三年级的任课教师和学生在学校区。为1936名学生和85间教室的数据用于分析。2.1.2确定教师效能所采用的方法依赖的假设，有效的教师是促进实现收益超出预期，从学生的过去的成就，为研究确定教师效能。其他增值系统在一段时间内，一直在用此方法类似。所采用的方法是既普通最小二乘法（OLS）和分层线性模型（HLM）。2.2第二部分：有效和更有效的教师比较分析2.2.1样品第二部分的研究涉及教师的教学实践的检验，影响学生的学习和谁影响低于预测收益在学生的学习如SOL评估测量的收益高于预测。为了探索有效的教学现象，探索跨案例分析。部分的结果，我被用来确定进行深入的案例研究，从三年级教师基于学生的学业成长复合的最高和最低四分位数之间。2.2.2数据分析方法为了探索有效的教学现象，探索跨案例分析的定性方法。使用多个案件，使人们有可能建立的的证据一个逻辑链。此外，跨案例分析可以分析在整个案件确定的一致性。2.2.3仪表具体来说，有以下工具：（一）质疑分析图表，（二）叙事运行记录，（三）任务时间图表，（四）师生互动分析，（五）清单，学生评估的做法， （六）总体使用时间图表，及（e）教师面试形式。经过观察和访谈，两个观察员被要求完成一个教师效能行为量表根据表1中确定的尺寸。2.2.4程序采用双盲设计的教师没有被告知他们纳入研究的原因;另外观察员收集观测数据有效/无效的教师身份不知道。所有标识的教师信息进行编码，例如，只有一个学区的员工知道教师的身份在各组。与选定的五位老师从最低四分位数最高四分位数和六位教师进行课堂观察。两名观察员在一个3小时的课堂参观和随后的半小时的采访中，每个选定的老师采用了多种数据收集策略。一堂训练课，课堂观察这项研究使用特定的开发工具进行观测。这次会议包括概述的研究中，使用的每个协议的具体培训，并指导合成的整体评级的观察数据。3结果以下各节报告的调查结果，从观测数据的“有效”的教师，促进高于预期，为学生的学习收益，“无效”的教师，促进学习收益低于预期。3.1学生教师相互作用一节课1小时段期间，观察员记录了学生与老师的互动在三个具体领域：间接的，直接的，和学生谈话。之间的有效和较有效的教师指出，在此分析（表4）有显着的差异。3.2教师课堂行为概要重点从教师课堂教学行为的比较分析结果显示如下：指令：1.有效教师研究提供更复杂的指令，更加注重记忆与意义比那些被认为是无效的教师。 2.有效教师研究教学策略，展示了一个更广泛的范围内，使用的各种材料和媒体的支持课程，比那些教师被认为是无效的。学生评价：1.一个域被发现有显着的差异，有利于有效教师，学生评估。2.有效的教师比无效教师为学生学习提供了更多差异化的分配。学习环境：1.有效教师研究更加有组织比无效的老师与高效的程序和日常任务的程序。 2.研究有效的教师为学生行为的期望高于无效教师的期望。个人素质：1.有是有区别的教师都被认为是有效的，和那些个人素质的整体域视为无效。 2.当无效教师相比，有效教师研究表现出较高程度的尊重和对学生的公平性。3.3教师质疑分析在1小时的观察期，在三个层面上教师总数的问题问吻合：召回的问题，理解问题，以及更高层次的问题（根据Bloom的分类）。表6说明主要从这样的分析结果。由教师提出的问题表明，有效的教师做无效的教师（即，应用，分析，综合，评价），约7倍多的教师认为是无效的要求更多更高层次的问题的类型的对比分析。4讨论4.1使用统计模型来评估教师效能当前的环境洋溢着对教育的问责性，在学生，教师和学校层面的新的呼叫。 NCLB法要求更注重教师的学生收益性和有效性。在目前的研究中，我们将重点放在老师的鉴定结果可以紧扣问责。公平性和易用性是任何问责制度，将在教育环境中使用提出的核心问题。教师效能评估服务的改善方向，以满足专业需求的老师，学校内和支持改革努力。从逻辑上讲，如果教学提高学生的成绩也将进一步改善。4.2有效教师的特征和行为这种探索性的跨案例分析的一个重要的发现是教学的教师在学生的学习产生高收益的特征和行为的初步鉴定。在这项研究中，评估，密切配合课程所教的老师，这使得学生的学习收益有意义的解释，更大低于预期。像这样的研究可以帮助我们开始更好地理解课堂流程和理想的学生的学习成果之间的联系。此外，专注于有效教师的标志，我们最终可能会更好的装备，以教育教师更熟练，一次有意义的绩效期望教师在教室，更公平地评估和奖励教师。4.3限制由于非常有限的样本大小跨案例分析（N = 11），大量的变量，以及大量的统计检验，分析，提出了专注于探索性分析的结果，而不是趋势统计分析。因此，应谨慎行事，在解释或概括的研究结果。鉴于这些研究结果的承诺，并考虑目前的研究的局限性，我们建议在今后的工作中继续研究这一行的。特别是将允许更强大的统计分析，以进行研究，可以提供一个更大，更代表性的样本。5结论虽然决策者定期建议，学校对学生的学习有多大影响，最近的研究表明，学校和他们的努力确有差别，这种差异可以直接链接到教师。鉴于教师效益和学生学习之间存在明确和不可否认的链接，使用的学生成绩信息，当它是课程的基础，可以提供一个非常宝贵的工具，探索提高学生的学习成就超出预测水平教师的课堂实践。的确，学生成绩，应该是，学校，管理员和教师反馈的有效性的一个重要来源。教育工作者和政策制定者所面临的挑战是使某些学生的成绩是摆在更广阔的背景下，什么样的教师和学校办成。此外，由于教师始终扮演成功的学校，教师表现和学生的表现连接的核心作用，是教育改革议程的自然延伸。参考文献 柏林，D. C.。专家教育家的追求。教育研究员，（1986）,15（7），5-13。布鲁姆，B. S.（1984）。搜索组指令的方法有效地作为一个一对一辅导。教育领导，41（8），4-17。科贝特，D.，威尔逊，B.（2004）。哪些城市学生说，良好的教学。教育领导，60（1），18-22。克鲁克香克，D. R.，黑费勒，D.（2001）。老师好，复数。教育领导，58（5），26-30。What is the Relationship Between Teacher Quality and Student Achievement? An Exploratory StudyJames H. Stronge & Thomas J. Ward & Pamela D. Tucker & Jennifer L. HindmanReceived: 19 December 2007 /Accepted: 25 January 2008 / Published online: 13 February 2008 # Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2008Abstract The major purpose of the study was to examine what constitutes effective teaching as defined by measured increases in student learning with a focus on the instructional behaviors and practices. The exploratory study identified instructional behaviors and practices of teachers that result in higher student learning gains.Keywords Teacher quality. Teacher effectiveness . Ineffective teacher. Effective teacher. Student achievement . Questioning . Student learning gains1 Background1.1 Demand for AccountabilityThe current demand for educational accountability has been building and crystallizing although the post-Sputnik period when reforms based on “excellence” and “accountability” emerged due in part to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965. This predecessor of todays No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) was intended to increase quality and equity by emphasizing an accountability component that required evidence of effectiveness for Title I programs . In subsequent decades, we have experienced wave after wave of educational reform efforts, most notably those advocated in A Nation at Risk in 1983 which “solidified the accountability trends of the 1960s and 1970s” and galvanized the national agenda of high standards. The last 40 years of reform efforts have focused primarily on the development of curriculum standards, assessments to measure student achievement, and school level reporting mechanisms to publicly explain results. Most recently, reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, better known as the No Child Left Behind Act, is intended to tie federal education funding directly to improvements in student test scores.1.2 Relationship Between Teacher Effectiveness and Student AchievementOver the past few decades, numerous studies have focused on defining the charac- teristics of effective schools and teachers. Contemporary research has focused on the value-added connection between teaching and learning, with leading examples of this assessment process including the Tennessee Value-added Assessment System and the Dallas Independent Public Schools. Analysis of data from these and other programs offer dramatic evidence regarding the influence of the classroom teacher on student learning . There is a growing body of research critiquing the Tennessee Value Assessment System research . Nonetheless, the evidence from multiple studies seems to confirm the efficacy of value-added approaches for assessing teacher quality. In a review of studies that utilize value-added modeling to explain teacher effects on student achievement, McCaffrey et al. concluded that while the value-added approach has limitations it nonetheless should be an alternative in examining teacher quality. They stated, “given the current state of knowledge about VAM value-added modeling we expect that some efforts to estimate teacher effects could provide useful information on teachers” . The over-arching finding from value-added studies is that effective teachers are, indeed, essential for student success. For example, Wright et al. found there is evidence that lower-achieving students are more likely to be placed with less effective teachers. Thus, the neediest students are being instructed by the least capable teachers. Using a multi-year database, Sanders and colleagues found that when children, beginning in third grade, were placed with three high performing teachers in a row, they scored, on average, at the 96th percentile on Tennessees statewide mathematics assessment at the end of fifth grade. When children with comparable achievement histories starting in third grade were placed with three low performing teachers in a row, their average score on the same mathematics assessment was at the 44th percentile, yielding a 52-percentile point difference.1.3 Qualities of Effective TeachersDimensions that characterize teacher effectiveness synthesized from a meta-review of extant research were used as the conceptual framework for this study. From this review, the qualities of effective teachers were divided into the dimensions of instructional expertise, student assessment, learning environment, and personal qualities of the teacher (Table 1). 2 Method2.1 Part I: Identification of Effective Teachers2.1.1 Setting and Target PopulationThe data for the current study were collected from third grade students and teachers in a moderately sized urban school district located in Virginia. The school district has 36 schools, a student population of approximately 23,000, and a teacher population of nearly 1,500. The student population is predominantly 60% African- American and 35% white; approximately 2% of the student population receives ESL services. The sample selected for this study consisted of the third grade regular classroom teachers and students in the school district. Data for 1936 students and 85 classrooms were used for the analyses.2.1.2 Identifying Teacher EffectivenessThe methodology used for determining teacher effectiveness for the study relied on the assumption that effective teachers are those who foster achievement gains beyond that expected from the students past achievement. This methodology is similar to other value-added systems that have been in use for some time . The methodology employed was both ordinary least squares (OLS) and hierarchical linear modeling (HLM). 2.2 Part II: Comparative Analysis of Effective and Less Effective Teachers2.2.1 SamplePart II of the study involved an examination of the instructional practices of teachers who effected higher than predicted gains in student learning and those who effected lower than predicted gains in student learning as measured by the SOL assessments. In order to explore the phenomenon of effective teaching, exploratory cross-case analyses were used. The results of part I were used to identify third-grade teachers for in-depth case studies from among the highest and lowest quartiles based on their student academic growth composite. 2.2.2 Data Analysis ApproachIn order to explore the phenomenon of effective teaching, the qualitative approach of exploratory cross-case analysis was used. Using multiple cases makes it possible to build a logical chain of evidence. Additionally, cross-case analysis allows for analysis of consistencies identified across the cases .2.2.3 InstrumentationSpecifically, the following instruments were used: (a) questioning analysis chart, (b) narrative running record, (c) time-on-task chart, (d) student-teacher interaction analysis, (e) checklist of student assessment practices, (f) overall time use chart, and (e) teacher interview form. Following the observation and interview, both observers were asked to complete a teacher effectiveness behavior scale based on the dimensions identified in Table 1.2.2.4 ProceduresA double blind design was employed in which the teachers were not informed as to the reason for their inclusion in the study; additionally the observers who collected observational data did not know the effective/ineffective identities of the teachers. All identifying teacher information was coded such that only a single school district employee knew the identity of teachers in each group. Classroom observations were conducted with the selected five teachers from the highest quartile and six teachers from the lowest quartile. Two observers used a variety of data collection strategies during a 3-h classroom visit and a subsequent half hour interview with each selected teacher. A training session was provided for classroom observers on conducting observations using the specific instruments developed for this study. The session included an overview of the study, specific training on the use of each protocol, and instruction on synthesizing the data for the overall rating of the observation. 3 ResultsThe following sections report the findings from the observational data of “effective” teachers, those who facilitated higher than expected learning gains for students, and “ineffective” teachers, those who facilitated lower than expected learning gains.3.1 StudentTeacher InteractionsDuring a 1-h segment of a lesson, the observers recorded studentteacher interactions in three specific domains: indirect, direct, and student talk. There were no noteworthy differences between the effective and less effective teachers noted in this analysis (Table 4).3.2 Teacher Classroom BehaviorsA summary of key findings from the comparative analysis of teacher classroom behaviors revealed the following: Instruction:1. The effective teachers studied provided more complex instruction with a greater emphasis on meaning versus memorization than those teachers who were considered ineffective. 2. The effective teachers studied demonstrated a broader range of instructional strategies, using a variety of materials and media to support the curriculum, than those teachers who were considered ineffective.Student Assessment:1. As a domain, student assessment was found to have noteworthy differences favoring the effective teachers.2. The effective teachers studied provided more differentiated assignments for students than did the ineffective teachers.Learning Environment:1. The effective teachers studied were more organized than ineffective teachers with efficient routines and procedures for daily tasks. 2. The behavioral expectations for students of the effective teachers studied were higher than the expectations of the ineffective teachers.Personal Qualities:1. There was a difference between teachers deemed effective and those deemed ineffective in the overall domain for personal qualities. 2. When compared to the ineffective teachers, the effective teachers studied demonstrated a higher degree of respect for and fairness toward students.3.3 Teacher Questioning AnalysisDuring 1 h of the observation period, the total number of questions asked by the teachers on three levels was tallied: recall questions, comprehension questions, and higher order questions (based on Blooms Taxonomy). Table 6 illustrates key findings from this analysis. A comparative analysis of the types of questions asked by teachers revealed that the effective teachers asked more higher-level questions than did the ineffective teachers (i.e., application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation), approximately seven times as many than those teachers considered ineffective.4 Discussion4.1 Using Statistical Models to Assess Teacher EffectivenessThe current environment for education is permeated with new calls for accountabil- ity at the student, teacher, and school levels. The NCLB Act calls for more attention to student gains and effectiveness of teachers. In the current study, we focused on the identification of teacher outcomes that can be closely linked to accountability. Fairness and usability are central issues in any system of accountability that would be proposed for use in educational settings . The improvement orientation of evaluating teacher effectiveness serves to meet the professional needs of the teacher and to support reform efforts within a school . Logic dictates that if teaching improves then student achievement will improve as well.4.2 Characteristics and Behaviors of Effective TeachersOne important finding of this exploratory cross-case analysis is the preliminary identification of instructional characteristics and behaviors of those teachers who produced high gains in student learning. In the study, assessments were used that were closely aligned with the curriculum taught by the teachers, which allowed for a meaningful interpretation of student learning gains, both greater and lower than expected. Studies such as this may help us begin to better understand the links between classroom processes and desirable student outcomes. Moreover, by focusing on the hallmarks of effective teachers, eventually we may be better equipped to educate teachers more expertly, to set meaningful performance expectations once teachers are in classrooms, and to evaluate and reward teachers more fairly. 4.3 LimitationsDue to the very limited sample size of the cross-case anal