基础写作要点总结.ppt

基础写作要点总结,Manuscript Form,1、题目,作文标题放在首行中间 题目每个单词的首字母大写（除冠词、介词、对等连词and, or, but, nor, for、不定式的to; 但这些词是题目首词、尾词也大写） 题目末尾不用句号，但是是问句时可用问号。,2、段落,每段首行缩进4-5个字母空格。,3、连字符,连字符放在行末，而非行首；单音节词不可分，双音节或多音节词按音节分。,4、大写,三种情况： 1）专有名词 2）题目中的重点词 3）句首字母,Punctuation,1. 逗号 （，）,1）连接对等分句 如：We started early in the morning, and before dark we reached the village. 2) 用于做状语的分句或短语后 如：When the rain stopped, we continued to work in the fields. 3) 用于分隔具有相同功能的一系列词或短语 如：Present at the meeting were Dean Lee, Professor Brown, Associate Professor Mojor, Miss Lindon, and a few other members of the faculty. 4) 用于分隔非限制性定从、短语 如：At 22 she left the college, where she had spent four fruitful and memorable years. Mr. Huang, the new director of the company, will soon announce his plans for reforms. 美国英语日期写法：月 日， 年 如：Hong Kong was restored to China on July 1, 1997. 数字书写 从右向左每三位点一逗号。 如：1,253,964,2. 句号（.）,1）用于陈述句、轻微祈使句、间接问句后 如：Dont overuse punctuation marks. She asked the teacher when the homework should be handed in. 2) 用于缩写后 如：U. S. A. U.K. a.m. p.m. 3) 三个句号构成省略号 如： “He said many things, such assuch asoh, yes, he said that he would resign from the committee.”,3. 分号 (;),1) 用于中间不用连词的两个对等分句之间 如：She doesnt like this film; she is disgusted with it. 2) 用于however, therefore, nonetheless, hence, otherwise, besides, moreover 等连接副词之前 如：He promised to come to the meeting; however, he didnt appear. 3) 当分句内部有标点时，在连词前用分号。 如：He wrote a few good books when he was young and poor; but after he became famous and rich, he wrote nothing worth reading. 4) 并列成分内部有逗号时，并列成分之间用分号 如：Among those who joined the discussion were Miss Wu, a well-known writer; Dr. Qian, a professor of literary criticism; and Ms. Sun, a famous historian.,4. 冒号 （：）,引出引语，即冒号后跟引文 如：It will do everyone good to remember this old saying: “One will know that he does not know enough after he begins to learn.” 冒号后跟解释或同位语 如：He gave two reasons for his failure in the examination: poor health and insufficient time for preparation. She bought many souvenirs: two small bronze statues, a carved wooden case for jewelry, and a kerchief(头巾) with wax-printed designs. 用于小时和分钟之间表示时间 如：There are three flights to Tokyo today: at 11:35, 16:20 and 20: 50. 用于比赛得分记录 如：China beat Japan 3:2 in the womens volleyball championships. 商务信件的称呼之后 如：Dear Mr. Johnson: 演讲辞对领导和听众的称呼之后 Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen:,5. 问号（?）,直接问句之后 如：“When did the Norman Conquest take place?”the teacher asked.,6. 感叹号（！）,用于感叹句、表示强调的感叹词、表示强烈感情的短语之后 如：How beautiful Yellow Mountain is! “Help! Help!” shouted the boy struggling in the river. “Get out!” he yelled. 用于口号之后 如：Long live the Peoples Republic of China!,7. 引号（“ ”）,双引号用于对话、或出自书、文章的直接引文；单引号用于引文中的引文。 用于文章、论文、短篇小说、短诗、歌曲的题目或书的章节的标题。但是书、报纸、杂志的题目用下划线或斜体。 如：You can find Byrons poems “She Walks in Beauty” and “When We Two Parted” in The Romantic Poets. 3) 有特殊意义的词用引号 如：Here “register” refers to a particular type of vocabulary.,8. 圆括号 （parentheses/ brackets）,用于解释、补充、说明的部分 如：A WTO (World Trade Organization) delegation is to visit China next week. 用于计数 如：This book consists of three parts: (1) ancient history, (2) modern history, and (3) contemporary history.,9. 方括号（square brackets）,引文中表示解释、更正的部分 如：In the article he wrote, “Not for a moment did she Emily Dickinson intend to make herself famous by publishing her poems.” 在圆括号中用方括号 如：There are quite a few good translations of classical Chinese literary works in these two volumes (Anthology of Chinese Literature New York: Grove Press, Inc., 1965).,10. 破折号 （Dash）,两个破折号用于解释 如：All his belongingsa few articles of clothing and a few booksare here. 用于并列的名词后引出总结句 如：Bob, Lily, Adrian, Judynone of them know where he is. 在对话中可作引号用 如：When was Shakespeare born and when did he die? He was born in 1564 and died in 1616. 用于副标题之前 如：Wang Zhaojun in Autumn in the Han Palace An Interpretation of the Theme of the Play 用于引文后引出作者 如：“It is upon bad fortune that good fortune leans; it is upon good fortune that bad fortune rests (祸兮福之所倚，福兮祸之所伏).”,11. 斜杠（slash）,表示选择其一，相当于“or”“and/or” 如：The school gives students who have financial difficulties loans / part-time jobs. 分隔分子、分母 如：This factory now employs 2/3 of the workers it employed last year, but its output is increased by 1/3. 表示“每” 如：The house is sold at 20,000 yuan/ sqare meter.,Making Correct and Effective Sentences,correct sentences 应符合以下要求：,结构完整 首字母大写 末尾用句号、问号或感叹号 表达一个完整的意思,effective sentences 应注意以下几点：,1. 要有统一性（unity）,如：Born in Sichuan Province, he later became a famous writer. (two facts mentioned not logically connected),2. 要有连贯性（coherence）,Do not separate words that are closely related unless it is necessary 如：Everyone is studying English in this school.() 应为：Everyone in this school is studying English.,Do not use a pronoun with ambiguous reference 如：Mrs. Green said to her sister that she had done the right thing.,Do not use a dangling modifier or put a modifier far from the word it modifies 如：Looking out of the window, only dull grey buildings can be seen. The funny cartoon on the cover of the magazine attracts the readers eye.,Do not make unnecessary or confusing shifts in person or number 如：Those who want to join the club should sign your name on this sheet of paper.,Do not make unnecessary changes in the voice, tense or mood of verbs 如：The explosion destroyed the building and a number of people were injured. 应改为：The explosion destroyed the building and injured a number of people.,Do not use different forms to express parallel ideas. 如：It is generally believed that ones action is more important than what one says. 应改为：It is generally believed that ones action is more important than ones words.,3. 有准确性,4. 对重点部分进行强调,强调方式 1）动词比名词或其它词性更有强调作用 2）主动语态比被动语态更有强调作用，但强调受动者而非施动者时，用被动语态更好 3）为强调句子的主要观点，可将次要部分用从句或分词短语表示 4）可重复重要的词表示强调 5）长句后放置短句表强调 6）否定陈述后跟肯定陈述，通过对比表强调 7）用反问句表强调 8）用above all，extremely，by far等词或强调句、感叹句表示强调,5. 要有结构和长短的变化。如：长短句搭配；简单句、复杂句搭配,Developing Paragraphs,1、段落特点,1）要有一个主题句，表达该段落的中心思想，通常放在句首 2）要有支撑该主题句的论据 3）句与句之间要有紧密联系,2、段落的写作方式/构架方式,1）按时间顺序 表示时间顺序的词或短语：,now, nowadays, when, before, after, while, during, betweenand, in(year), since, later, afterwards, earlier, formerly(从前), from then on, at the turn of the century (decade), in the first half of the century, in the 1990s, etc., at birth, in childhood, in infancy, in adolescence, as an adult, in adulthood, in old age, at death, simultaneously, simultaneous with, at the same time as, the former, the latter, previous, previously, prior to, first, second, etc., in the first place, in the second place, etc. to begin with, next, then subsequently(后来), in the next place (其次)，in conclusion, finally, lastly, in the end,Sample,The first railroads were developed in Europe in the sixteenth century. They looked nothing like those of today. The rails were of wood, and the cars, small wooden carts which hauled coal, were drawn by horses. By the early nineteenth century, railroad technology had advanced considerably. Steam locomotives had been developed, and cast iron was used for tracks. In 1825 a railroad line began carrying passengers as well as freight. That same year Americas first known steam locomotive was run on a circular track at Hoboken, New Jersey. Soon American locomotives and railroads were multiplying rapidly. Many short rail lines were laid during the 1830s. these short lines were then linked with one another, and by the early 1840s networks of rails connected all the eastern cities.,2) 按过程顺序 表示过程顺序的词或短语：,first(ly), then, once (一就), next, until, as soon as, lastly, as, at this point, before, while, at the same time, after, when,Sample,Moving house is a major upheaval in peoples lives. Before the men come to actually move the furniture, many things must be done in preparation. All the toys, normally strewn around the house, must be gathered together and put into large boxes for easy transportation. All books too must be put away in an orderly fashion so as not to be damaged in transit. Drawers and wardrobes should be emptied and their contents carefully packed. Pictures should be taken down from the walls and wrapped with proper cloth. And lastly, dont forget to take down all the curtains and blinds. Soon everything is prepared and the removal men arrive. All the boxes and furniture are loaded into the lorry. A quick check is necessary to make sure the flat is empty and the lorry is off on its way to the new flat.,3) 按空间顺序 表示空间顺序的词或短语：,where, in which, to which, from which, etc., under, over, inside, beside, on top of, etc., along, through, as far as(直到那么远), etc., north, northern, south, southern, etc., to the left, to the right, to the north, etc., at the back, in front, in the middle, etc., adjacent to(接近，邻近), corresponding to（和一致，和对应）, distance, midpoint, interior, diagonal(对角线), edge, limit(界限), parallel, parallel to, perpendicular to (和垂直), plane (平面), opposite, overlapping, pyramid, exterior, rectangle, semicircle, slope, space, surface, vertical, horizontal, intersection,Sample,Oxford is an exceptionally old university town, on the River Thames, about 60 miles from London. Oxfords center is the university; and all around the crossroads at the very heart of Oxford, Carfax, there are gray stone Colleges and other university buildings. In the center you can also find interesting old pubs and paved passages. There are a lot of churches, and one or two really large and interesting buildings, such as the Ashmolean Museum, the “round library”, the Bodleian and the Radcliffe Canera, with its domed roof. Like all English towns, there are parks, and one, “the Parks”, is the leafy home of university cricket in the summer months. As you leave the center and go towards the outskirts of Oxford you can see industrial estates and a car factory in one direction; and in another, attractive suburbs. There is, in fact, quite a lot of industry in Oxford.,4) 通过例示 常用词或短语：,for example, for instance, for one thing, to illustrate, in other words, as follows, let me illustrate, let me cite as proof, as an illustration, in one instance, in this instance, as an example, take (sth as) example, in practice, according to statistics, according to statistical evidence,Sample,So you talk to your plants? So you give them love and attention? According to Peter Tompkins and Christopher Bird, authors of a book called The Secret Life of Plants, you should talk to them and give them love. They describe an experiment in which two seeds were planted in different places. While the plants were growing, on plant was given love and positive ideas. The other plant was given only negative ideas. After six months, the loved plant was bigger. Under the earth, it had more and longer roots; above the earth, it had a thicker stem and more leaves. So be careful when you are talking in front of your plants. They may be listening to you!,5) 通过对比 常用词或短语：,To Compare: similar to, similarly, like, alike, likewise, correspond to, correspondingly, resemble, resemblance, almost the same as, at the same rate as, as, (just) as so, in like manner, in the same way, to havein common, common characteristics, etc., to be parallel in, both To Contrast: differ from, different from, however, still, nevertheless, otherwise, even so, less/more/fasterthan, although, unlike, while, whereas, in contrast to, in opposition to, on the contrary, on the other hand, on the opposite side,Sample,Life in a big city has become more and more difficult for people to cope with. In a big city, stress is caused by daily having to contend with crowds of people and restricted space. Travel in rush hours can be a real headache. Pollution of various kinds is result of industrialization. Cars spew toxic fumes into the atmosphere. Noise bellows out from every side. All these factors add to the pressure of daily existence in a big town. In contrast, life in a country village is much more attractive. Here the pace of life is gentle. There is time to reflect on the beauty of the world. In a village, life is closer to nature. The changing seasons can be clearly observed. There is ample space for everyone, and fresh air to breathe.,6) 按因果关系 常用词或短语：,so, thus, hence, since, due to, the reason for, for this reason, the cause of, It follows that, so that, so asto, makepossible, make it possible/impossible forto do, accordingly, consequently, the consequence of, therefore, have an effect on, for, because, because of, suchthat, now that, as a result, the result of, result in, the effect of, as owing to, oweto, thanks to, out of, seeing that, for fear that,Sample,In these years, the record companies have been competing to bring out the latest versions of the same pieces, but they didnt bother finding out if music fans wanted them. Now they realize their mistake, but too late. Nothing illustrates the problems facing the classical music industry better than Beethovens Fifth Symphony. With over 100 different compact disc (CD) recordings of the Fifth currently available, this is one example of a popular piece of music which has been recorded too many times. The CD-buying public, it seems, has lost its taste for new recordings of famous pieces.,7) 通过分类 常用词或短语：,main kinds of, kinds of, basic kinds, minor, primary, secondary, classify, divide, kinds, types, classes, parts, categories, aspects, factors, sources, regions, times, similar/similarities, dissimilar/dissimilarities, differences, opposing, opposite, classifications, divisions, attributes, characteristics, qualities, according to, with respect to, fall intocategories, can be divided intokinds/types/classes/parts,Sample,Indian was an easy way for Europeans to refer to any person living in the mysterious new land across the ocean. But these peoples never thought of themselves as Indians. Instead they had hundreds of different names, each identifying a separate tribe and culture. Some Indians were hunters, some were farmers, some fisher, some warriors, some slaves, some priests, and some artists. Many groups of Indians lived in one place all their lives; others were almost always traveling, searching for food. Each group had its own language, although some used sign language to communicate with other tribes. Some Indians led a simple life of hunting and gathering; a few groups built great cities and majestic temples. Some were almost always at war with other tribes. But many groups of Indians almost never fought. Each tribe was basically independent.,Composing Essays,1.Criteria of a Good Composition,A good composition should have something interesting and/or important, and if possible, something new, to say and this “something” is expressed clearly, accurately, and appropriately.,2. Steps in Writing a Composition,(1) Planning a Composition,1) Putting down all the relevant facts 2) Thinking of a proper theme (a controlling idea) and deciding on our purpose 3) Re-examining our list of details and outlining,Types of outline: sentence outline and topic outline, sentence outline is made up of sentences topic outline is made up of nouns, noun phrases, gerund phrases, infinitive phrases,Sample,Thesis (controlling idea) I. Introduction II. Main Idea A. Sub-idea B. Sub-idea 1. Supporting detail 2. Supporting detail a. Fact 1 b. Fact 2 III. Main Idea A. Sub-idea 1. Supporting detail 2. Supporting detail B. Sub-idea C. Sub-idea VI. Conclusion,Rules for writing outlines:,Avoid single subdivisions (If there is a major point marked “I”, there must be another marked “II”; if there is an “A”, there must be a “B”, and so on.) avoid mixing sentences and phrases in an outline (a topic outline is written in noun phrases, and a sentence outline, in sentences.) subheads of the same rank should be of equal importance, be related to the headings, and be arranged in logical order. write the thesis in one complete sentence.,(2) Writing the First Draft,(3) Revising the First Draft,The following checklist may be helpful:,Content: Look at the paper/composition as a whole What is the topic of the paper/composition? Does the draft fulfill the assignment? Is the thesis clear? Is it supported by enough facts (details, examples, reasons, etc.)? Is there irrelevant material that should be removed? Is the logic sound? Are there gaps in the logic?,Organization: Look at the arrangement of the material. Does the introductory paragraph lead to the main point of the paper? Does each paragraph have a separate central idea? Does it relate to the papers main idea or to the previous paragraph? Are there proper transitions between sections? Does the concluding paragraph give the reader a clear impression of what the paper intends to say?,Sentences: Is each sentence clearly related to the sentence before it and to the sentence after it? Are there unnecessary sentences that may be removed? Are there structural mistakes? Are there wordy and redundant sentences? Is there variety in sentence type?,Diction: Are there words that are not appropriate for the topic or the style of the whole paper (e.g. too colloquial or too formal)? Are there words or phrases which are directly translated from Chinese but which may mean something different in English Are there collocations which may be incorrect?,Mistakes in grammar, spelling, punctuation, etc.,(4) Making the final copy,Three main parts of a composition,(1) The beginning: the beginning rouses the readers interest and draws their attention to the subject matter of the paper and/or provides necessary background information.,Possible ways to begin a paper (不限于此): relevant background material the time and place of the event to be described a quotation a question a statement figures or statistics a definition,(2) The middle: the middle presents clearly and logically the writers facts and ideas,