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语言文化论文-从合作原则看英语委婉语的使用AbstractTheword“euphemism”comesfromtheGreek,eu-means“good”,andpheme-,“speech”or“saying”,andtogetheritmeansliterally“tospeakwithgoodwordsorinapleasantmanner”.Euphemism,asaculturalphenomenonaswellasalinguisticconcept,hasattractedpeoplesattentionforalongtime.Ithaslongbeenatopicofmuchinterest.Generallyspeaking,peoplewouldusemoreeuphemismsincommunicatingwiththeoppositesex;womenwouldusemorethanmenwould;olderpeoplewouldusemorethanyoungergenerations.Peoplewouldmoreuseeuphemismsinpowerrelationsthanincloserelations.Peoplewithhighereducationwouldusemoreeuphemisms.Theabovefactors:age,sex,socialstatus,education,etc.donotworkseparately.Incommunicating,theyareinterlacedwitheachotherandguideourchoiceofeuphemisms.Whethertouseeuphemismsortaboowordsalsodepends,toalargeextent,ontheattitudesofparticipants(particularlyspeakers)andthepurposeofconversations.Thearticleconsistsofsixparts.Partoneexplainswhatthemeaningofeuphemismis.ParttwoissayingtheCooperativePrincipleinbriefly.CooperativePrinciple,thecornerstonetheoryofpragmatics,isoneofthemainprinciplesthatguidepeoplescommunication.TheCooperativePrincipleanditsmaximscanexplainwhattheliteralmeaningisanditsrealintentionincommunicationandensurethatinanexchangeofconversation.Partthreepresents,theformationeuphemism,namely,formalinnovation,semanticinnovation,rhetoricaldevices,andgrammaticalways.Partfourdiscussesthecommunicativefunctionofeuphemismissubstitution,politeness,disguise,defense,etc.Partfiveservesasthemainbodyofthisarticle.Generallyspeaking,euphemismsviolatetheQuality,QuantityandMannerMaximoftheCPduetodifferentreasonslikesubstitution,disguiseetc.AndbasicallyeuphemismsobservetheRelationMaxim.Fromtheanalysis,itcanbealsofoundthatsometimesaneuphemismcanberegardedasviolationoftwomaximsoftheCPatthesametime.Partsixconcludesthewholearticle.KeyWordsCooperativePrinciple;Euphemism;Communicativefunction【摘要】委婉语(euphemism)一词起源于希腊语。Eu意思是“好的”,pheme意思是“话语”,因此字面上的意思是说好听的话或用礼貌的方式说话。委婉语是一个语言学概念,同时也是一种文化现象,长久以来一直受到人们的关注。总体上讲人们在与异性进行言语交际时,要比在同性面前更多地使用委婉语,女性要比男性更多地使用委婉语,年长的人要比年青的人更多地使用委婉语。人们在“权势关系”的语境中往往要比在“亲密关系”的语境中更多地使用委婉语。受教育程度越高的人,越注意自己的言谈,因而更多地使用委婉语。上述因素年龄、性别、社会地位、教育等并不孤立存在,在交际中,他们交织在一起决定着委婉语的使用。是否使用委婉语还要考虑说话者的态度和交谈的目的。文章由六个部分组成。第一部分解释了什么是委婉语。第二部分简单列出合作原则的各项原则。它作为语用学的理论基石之一,是指导人们语言交际的原则之一。它可以很好地解释话语的字面意义和实际意义的关系,这对于交际委婉语显得尤为重要。第三部分说明委婉语的构成可以有很多种方式:形式变化,语义变化,修辞手段和语法手段。第四部分阐述了交际委婉语出于替代、掩饰、和礼貌等功能。第五部分是文章的主体,并说明委婉语出于替代、掩饰、和礼貌等原因主要违反了合作原则中的质、量和方式三个次则,基本上是遵循了合作原则中的相关原则。第六部分总结全文。【关键字】合作原则;委婉语;交际功能1.IntroductionIntheOxfordAdvancedLearnersEnglishChineseDictionarytheexplanationofEuphemismis(exampleofthe)useofpleasant,mildorindirectwordsorphrasesinplaceofmoreaccurateordirectones1.AndintheLongmanDictionaryofContemporaryEnglishtheexplanationofEuphemismis(anexampleof)theuseofapleasanter,lessdirectnameforsomethingthoughttobeunpleasant2.Forexample,themanwhowantstoustocallhima“sanitationengineer”insteadofa“garbageman”ishopingwewilltreathimwithmorerespectthanwepresentlydo.ThewordeuphemismcomesfromtheGreekeumeaninggoodandphememeaningspeechorsaying,andthusmeansliterallytospeakwithgoodwordsorinapleasantmanner3.Euphemismshavevariousreasonsforexistence.Theyconcealthethingspeoplefearthemostdeath,thedead,thesupernatural.Theycoverupthefactsoflifeofsexandreproductionandexcretionwhichinevitablyremindeventhemostrefinedpeoplethattheyaremadeofclay,orworse.Theyarebelovedbyindividualsandinstitutions(governments,especially)thatareanxioustopresentonlythehandsomestpossibleimagesofthemselvestotheworld.Andtheyareimbeddedsodeeplyinourlanguagethatfewofus,eventhosewhopridethemselvesonbeingplainspoken,evergetthroughadaywithoutusingthem.ButsomepeoplestillmistaketheeuphemismsintheconversationbytheCooperativeprinciple.ViolatingtheCP,peoplealsocancontinuetheconversationwitheuphemisms,whichmaketheauthorinterestinattitudesofparticipantsandthepurposeofconversation.Thatisourbodytoday.2.Formationofeuphemisms2.1FormalinnovationToavoidtheemergenceofcertainletterorsoundmayachievetheeffectofeuphemizing.Theformalinnovationcanhideaudio-visuallythosewordswedontwanttosayorweshouldntsaysoastoachievebetteroutcomeincommunication.2.1.1AbbreviationAbbreviationistheshorteningofawordandmaybeseenintheuseoftheBritishexpressionLADIESforladiesroom.TherealsoisGENTSforgentlemensroom.2.1.2ApocopationApocopationisanotherformofabbreviationapparentintheuseofvampforvampireheremeaningaseductivewoman.Andlavisforlavatory;homoisforhomosexual;cocaisforcocaine;braisforbrassiere.2.1.3InitialingInitialingistheuseofacronymsinsteadoftheircomponentpartsasinJCfor“JesusChrist”,BMforbowelmovement4,W.Cforwatercloset,B.Oforbodyodor,V.Dforvenerealdisease,AIDSforacquiredimmunedeficiencysyndrome,SARSforsevereacuterespiratorysyndromeBackformingBackformingisthesubstitutionforonepartofspeech(usedinshortenedform)foranother,asinburgle(rob)whichisderivedfromburglarReduplicationReduplicationistherepetitionofasyllableorletterofaword.Particularlycommoninchildrensbathroomvocabulary,itsubstitutespee-peeforpiss,poo-pooforbowelmovementBlendwordAblendwordisaformofphoneticdistortioninwhichtwoormorewordsaresqueezedtogetherbothorthographicallyandphonetically.Anexampleofthisisgezundaforachamberpot,atermderivedfromthefactthatthisobjectgoesunderthebedDiminutiveAdiminutiveistheformationofanewtermbynickingorshorteninganameandaddingasuffixindicatingaffectionorsmallness.Heinie,forexample,isthediminutiveofhindendandreferstothebuttocks9.2.2Semanticinnovation2.2.1BorrowingMostobviously,euphemismsmaybeformedbyborrowingwordsfromotherlanguagestermsthatarelessfreightedwithnegativeassociations.Thus,weuseGreekandLatinexpressionsformanybodilypartsandfunctions.Wehavecoinedhalitosis(badbreath)fromtheLatin(halitus)for“breath”andwehavesubstitutedmicturitionforthemorevulgarIndo-European“Piss”.Inaddition,Englisheuphemismsalsoborrowedalotofscientificoracademicterms,whicharebelievedtobemoreeuphemisticandobjectivethantheusualterms,suchasmagneticfor“sexy”andperspirefor“sweat”andsoon.2.2.2WideningEuphemismsmaybemadebyasemanticprocesscalledwidening.Whenaspecifictermbecomestoopainfulorvivid,wemoveupintheladderofabstraction.Inthisway,cancerbecomesgrowthandagirdlebecomesafoundation.Sometimes,inadditiontowideningwedividethenegativeconnotationsofasingledirecttermbetweentwoormorewords.Insteadofsaying“syphilis”openly,wespeakofasocialdisease.2.2.3SemanticshiftAlliedtothephenomenonofwideningisthatofsemanticshift.Thisisthesubstitutionofthewhole,orasimilargenerality,forthespecificpartwedonotchoosetodiscuss.Wemaycreatesuchmetonymies(substitutionsofthewholeforthepart)asrearendfor“buttocks”.Sometimes,asintheexpressionstosleepwith/gotobedwithsomeone10,weusewordsnamingthelargereventinplaceofmoreprecisereferencestothesexualrelationsthatarepartoftheprocess.2.3Rhetoricaldevices2.3.1MetaphorEuphemismsmaybemadebyaprocesscalledmetaphoricaltransfer,thecomparisonofthingsofonekindtothingsofanother.Theeuphemismschosenareoftenromanticizing,poeticizingandsofteningoftheoriginalwordslikegotosleep;gotohislonghome;behomeandfree;restinpeace;beatrest;gotoHeaven/Paradise;joinonesancestors;begatheredtoonesfathers;jointheimmoralsfordie11,shockforrandombombing,constructivedestructionforseveredamage,havearoadtotravelforhavealongtimetoreachanagreementandetc.2.3.2AposiopesisInEnglish,thereisakindofrhetoriccalledaposiopesisthatcanalsoactasthewayofeuphemizing.Whenwethinkweshouldnotsaysomethingundercertainconditions,wesuddenlystopaswhenwesaysomeoneisout(ofwork);sheisexpecting(ababy);totakeprecautions(againstpregnancy);todepart(fromthisworld)122.3.3AnalogyAnalogycanoftenbeseeninthevocabulariesofwork.Atendencytoelevatemenialorunskilledjobssometimessubstitutingagrandtitleforalargesalarycanmakeoffalsmelllikearosebypromotinggarbagementosanitationengineersoreventowaste-reductionmanagers.Byimplication,theybecomehighlytrainedtechniciansandexecutives.Health-clubstaffsbecomefitnesscoordinators,andsenatorsnowhavetheirshoesshinedbythefootwearmaintenanceengineer,formerlytheSenatebootblack.Evenifyouarenotagovernmentofficial,yourjanitorisnowyourbuidingmaintenanceengineer.2.3.4UnderstatementUnderstatementdisplayspeoplesdesiretomaketheirlanguagelesspainfulanddirect.Sothereisneveranuglywomaninthisworld,sheisatleastplain.Teachersonlytellparentsthattheirchildisabitslowforhisage,notretarded.Andcallseniorcitizenforoldperson.Takeothersthingswithoutpermissioncanbeinsteadofsteal.2.3.5PeriphrasisPeriphrasisisjustbeatingaroundthebush.Peopleoftensayeuphemismsareweaselwords,becausepeoplenevercallaspadeaspadewhenusingeuphemisms.Fartisnotpleasanttoear,sopeoplecallitwindfromthebehind.Someonewantsyoutogoaway,butheonlysayshewillcallyourcarriageforyou.Someonelivingatthegovernmentexpensemaymakeyouenvyhim,butactuallyheisinprison.ManysayingsaboutgoingtoWCmakeagooduseofperiphrasislikewashoneshands,powderonesnose,spendapenny.Sodothedropforadjustmentdownward132.4.GrammaticalwaysAccordingtoBolinger,Euphemismisnotrestrictedtothelexicon.Therearegrammaticalwaysoftoningsomethingdown”.Therefore,euphemizingshouldnotbelimitedtolexicalways;itcanalsobeachievedbygrammaticalways.2.4.1TenseInEnglish,tensecanlendalittleeuphemisticcolortotheexpressionsforsomethingundesired.Especiallywhenpeopleusewant,hope,thinkandwonderorwordslikethattheymayalsomakeuseofthetensetosoundmoreeuphemistically.Forexample,Iwonderedifyouwouldmindhelpingme?orIwonderedifyoucouldhelpme?14.Askinghelpthisway,peoplewontfeelsoembarrassediftheywererefused.2.4.2SyntacticalnegationThismethodcanlessonthepainfulimpactofthelanguagethatisnotwelcomed.Wesaysheisnotpretty(Actuallysheisveryugly),butthatisacceptable,becausenotprettydoesnotequalto“ugly”,itcouldbe“plain”too.Notprettyhasawiderrangeofmeaningthanugly.Similarusagesareasthefollowing:Idontthink,Iamafraid,Iamnotsure,Idontlike,etc.2.4.3FirstpersonalpronounsTheuseoffirstpersonalpronounslikewe,ours,us,etc,canalsomakeourspeechessoundmoreeuphemistic.Youwouldfeelmorewelcomedifyouusedweorourquiteoften.Ifadoctorsaidtoyouhowdowefeeltoday,youwouldfeelverywarmandcomfortable,becauseitmakesyouthinkthatthiskinddoctortakesyourillnessasmutualconcern.3CommunicativefunctionsofeuphemismsLanguageisforcommunication,whereaseuphemismsmayleadtobettercommunication.Usingeuphemismscanavoidbeingpresumptuousinlanguagecommunication.Whenwehavetotouchsometopicsthatareunpleasant,wetendtochoosemoreeuphemisticexpressionstorefertothosepainfultopicssoasnottohurtthehearersfeeling.WecanfindthetheoreticalfoundationforthismotivationinLeechsPolitenessPrinciple.Euphemismsjustminimizetheimpolitenessandmaximizethepolitenessincommunication.ThefunctionsofeuphemismsareinagreementwiththoseofPolitenessPrincipletoo,astheybothoffermorebenefittothehearerandleavemorecosttothespeaker,withthepurposethatbothofthetwosideswillfeelrespectedandhavefavorableimpressionofeachother.Aspolitenessisusuallyregardedasthemanifestationofhumancivilization,euphemismisoneofthemosteffectivestrategiestodisplaypolitenesswhilemodulatinginterpersonalrelationshipinhumancommunication.3.1SubstitutionAccordingtothedefinitionsofeuphemismandweknowthatagreatnumberofEnglisheuphemismsserveasthesubstitutionsforverbaltaboos.Thetermtaboo(tameaning“mark”,boomeaning“exceedingly”)ofPolynesianorigindenotesanythinglinguisticandnonlinguistic,whichisprohibitedorforbidden.Tabooreferstothesituationinwhichawordornamecanbeusedinacommunityonlyunderspecialconditions,whetheronlybycertainpersonsoronlyincertaincircumstances.Justasviolatingaculturaltaboocanbequiteoffensive,soisitwithaverbaltabooinpressconferences.The“word”hasbeenandcontinuestobeinmostsocietiesperceivedasapowerfulinstrumentthatmayevokeevilspirits,makebadthingshappenandinstigatetoviolenceandrevolutionandnumerousotheractivities.Whiletabooofwordsoccurswhenaparticulartopicisconsideredvalidfordiscussion,euphemisticexpressionortermsarerequired.Sodiplomaticeuphemismshaveaveryseriousreasonforbeing.Theycanconcealthethingspeoplefearmostdeath,thedeadorthesupernatural.Euphemismscanalsoeliminateunhappiness,embarrassmentandfearetc.soastorelievepeoplepsychologically.3.2PolitenessPolitenessisanotherveryimportantfunctionthateuphemismsserveinsociallife.Someoftheeuphemismsareusedtoavoidcrudenessandindecencyforthesakeofapoliteconversation.15GriceformulatedCooperativePrincipleofutteranceinwhichtheMaximofMannerwasdefinedas“Beperspicuousandspecific;Toavoidobscurity;Toavoidambiguity;Tobebriefandtobeorderly.”TheroundaboutnatureofeuphemismsgoesagainsttheMaximofManner,whichcanonlybefairlyexplainedwellbyLeechsPolitenessPrinciple“ApprobationMaxim:minimizedispraiseofother,maximizepraiseofother”.Inotherwords,euphemismsaretominimizeimpoliteexpressionsandmaximizepoliteexpressions.3.3DisguiseBesidesthetwofunctionsofeuphemismsmentionedabove,thereisstillanotheronemoreimportantfunctionatworkineuphemisticcommunication,namely,theDisguiseFunction.Herewemeanthatbecauseofthevaguenessofeuphemisms,ithasbecomeaveryimportanttoolforpoliticalleadersorthediplomatsorstatesmentodistortthefactsorandpresentafalsepictureofpeaceandprosperityandtobeautifywhatevertheauthorityhavedone.Forexample,intheIraqWar,theyuse“OperationIraqiFreedom”forbeautifyingtheirmilitaryinvasion,“possiblemovement”referstomilitaryattack,“airoperation”or“airstrikes”forairattack,“enterthewar”toshowtheirreluctancetofightthewaretc.andwemayfindmanysuchkindoftheseeuphemismsinpressconferences.Themostimportantandultimatefunctionorpurposeoftheuseofdiplomaticeuphemismsinpressconferencesistodisguiseorbeauti

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