语言文化论文-从语用学的礼貌原则看英语中的委婉语.doc

语言文化论文-从语用学的礼貌原则看英语中的委婉语【Abstract】Euphemism,cosmeticwords,isnotonlyalingualphenomenon,butalsoaculturalandsocialphenomenon.Itislikeamirror,reflectingthevalues,aestheticconceptionsandmoralconceptsinsomeextent.Euphemismplaysanimportantpartinsocialcommunication.Itislikelubethatavoidshurtingtheotherpartysfeeling.Itoilsthehumanrelationshipincommunicationandhelpstosavefaceofcommunicators.Ifpeoplemakefulluseofeuphemism,itcanaccelerateandfacilitatehumancommunication.Thispaperelaboratesonthefeaturesandsocialfunctionsofeuphemism.AnditfocusesontherelationshipsbetweenitspolitefunctionsandPolitenessPrinciple.ThisthesisiscomposedofsixpartswithChapterFourandFiveasitscore:Thefirstchapterfocusesontheoriginanddefinitionsofeuphemism.Thesecondchapterdiscussesthefeaturesofeuphemisminmanyways.Thethirdchaptertalksaboutthesocialfunctionsofeuphemismfromtheangleofpragmatics.Thefourthchapterformsthebasisofthewholeresearchbyconnectingeuphemismwithpolitenessandface-savingtheory.ThefifthchaptercentersoneuphemismandPolitenessPrinciple.Thelastchapterconcludesthewholethesis.AppropriateuseofEnglisheuphemismcancontributealottosuccessfulmessageexchange.【KeyWords】euphemism；socialfunctions；PolitenessPrinciple；facewant【摘要】委婉语是一种语言现象，一种文化现象，更是一种社会现象，在一定程度上，它反映了社会的价值观，审美观和美德观。委婉语在社会交际中发挥着重要作用。日常的约定俗成的委婉语能起润滑剂的作用，通过委婉语，可以避免语言过于直露而给对方造成伤害。它是语言使用中人们用来协调人际关系的有效润滑剂，是保全交际各方面子的重要手段。很多中外学者曾从不同的角度对英语委婉语进行了长期的研究并取得了可喜的成果。本文主要研讨了委婉语的特点，社会功用，并从语用学的角度分析了委婉语的社会功用，礼貌原则及面子问题。本文分为六个部分。第四和第五章是文章的重点。第一章主要探讨了委婉语的定义及起源。第二章从很多方面概括了委婉语的特点。第三章从语用的角度分析了委婉语的社会功用。第四章把委婉语与礼貌，面子保全论联系在一起，是本文的核心。第五章侧重于委婉语貌与礼貌原则的关系。本文的实践意义在于其分析结论有助于保证信息传递的顺利进行并促进人们的日常交流。【关键词】委婉语；社会功用；礼貌原则；面子1.IntroductionThereisahumor:OnceaParistouristresidedinUK.Alandladytoldhimsadlythat,“Myhusbandhasjustpassedtotheotherside.”Theguestlookedfromthefenceofthegardenbutsawnoone,feelingconfused.Thelandladyexplained:“Imeanheskickedthebucket.”Theguestcomfortedherthat:“Ihopehisfootwillbebettersoon.”Thelandladyfeltunintelligiblyandsaid:“No,hewasnthere,hesnuffedityouknow.”Theguestwonderedandsaid:“Butyouvegotelectricityhere.”Thereasonswhytheguestdidntanswerproperlyarethathedidntrealizethatthelandladyusedeuphemism,nordidheunderstandthe“conversationalimplicature”ofeuphemism.Whatthelandladywantedtosayisthatherhusbanddied.ThewordeuphemismcomesfromtheGreekword“euphemos”,meaningauspicious/good/fortunatespeechwhichinturnisderivedfromtheGreekroot-wordseu,good/well+pheme,speech/speaking.Theeuphemewasoriginallyawordorphraseusedinplaceofareligiouswordorphrasethatshouldnotbespokenaloud(Suchastaboo).Theprimaryexamplesoftaboowordsrequiringtheuseofaeuphemismaretheunspeakablenamesforadeity,suchasPersephone,Hecate,NemesisorYahweh.Byspeakingonlywordsfavorabletothegodsorspirits,thespeakerattemptedtoproducegoodfortunebyremainingingoodfavorwiththem.“EuphemismisdefinedintheNewEditionoftheOxfordConciseDictionary(1976)asSubstitutionofmildorvagueorroundaboutexpressionforharshordirectone；expressionthussubstituted.INWebstersNewCollegiateDictionary(1973)thedefinitionreads,Substitutionofanagreeableorinoffensiveexpressionforonethatmayoffendorsuggestsomethingunpleasant.”1EuphemismisanimportantrhetoricalmeansinEnglish.Itplaysanimportantroleinpeoplesdailycommunication.Itisnotonlyaculturalphenomenon,butalsoasocialphenomenon.Itjustlikesamirror,whichreflectssomesocialandpsychologicalphenomena.2.Featuresofeuphemism2.1IndirectandimplicitThemostimportantcharacterofeuphemismisindirectandimplicit.Euphemismalwaysgivespeoplehintsinaroundaboutway.Wecaninferthedeepermeaningandintentionfromthecontext.Forexample,whensomeoneisill,wealwayssayheisundertheweather.Ifsomeoneismad,wesayheissoftinmind.2.2UniversalityUniversalityissomethingthatiswell-knownandacceptedbyallofthepeople.Thougheuphemismisindirectanditdoesntcomestraighttothepoint,peoplecaneasilyinferitsdeeperimplication.Sometaboosconnectedwithsex,death,orbodyfunctionsarereplacedbyeuphemisms.Andthepublichasacceptedthiskindofuse.Forexample,whenwerefertodeath,weseldomsay“die”.Weusetheexpression“passaway”.2.3ThefeatureoftimesThechangesoflanguagedependontheneedandchangesofthesociety.Andeuphemismundergoesaprocessofmetabolism.Itbearsamarkedbrandoftimes.Forexample,“Sheispregnanthasmanydifferenteuphemisticexpressionsindifferenteras.(1)Shehascanceledallhersocialengagements.(1856)(2)Sheisinaninterestingcondition.(1880)(3)Sheisinadelicatecondition.(1895)(4)Sheisknittinglittlebootees.(1910)(5)Sheisinafamilyway.(1920)(6)Sheisexpecting.(1935)(7)Sheispregnant.(1956)”2Butafter1960s,euphemismsofpregnantdevelopslowlybecauseinmoderntimes,peoplearenotsoimplicit.Theyalwaysmentionthingsdirectly.Andnow,thephenomenonofpregnantisacheerfulthing.Peoplewillnotbeshywhenmentioningit.“Thewordgay,atfirst,itmeanshappyandhomosexuality.Butaseuphemismdevelops,thewordgayonlyremindsusthemeaningofhomosexuality.Thus,peopledontusetheexpressionWeareyoungandgay.”32.4RegionalfeatureIneuphemism,therearesomeregionaldifferences.AnAustralianwomanmarriedtoanAmericanman.TheyspenttheirhoneymooninAmerica.Andoneday,thecoupleintendedtogotoapartytogether.Butthebridegroomcouldntfindasuitablefulldress.Thebridetookoutabirthdaysuitthatshegavehimasapresentfewdaysagoandsaid:“Whynotwearyourbirthdaysuit?”However,thewholefamilyallastonishedbecauseinAmericanEnglish,“inonesbirthdaysuit”4istheeuphemisticexpressionof“naked”.Sothisembarrassingsituationresultedfromtheregionaldifferencesineuphemism.Therearetwocausesofregionaldifferences.Firstisaregionalculturaldifference.Indifferentregions,theculturetherewilleffectthedevelopmentofeuphemism.Forexample,“gotow.c.”.IntheBalliolcollegeofOxfordUniversity,studentscall“gototoiletastovisitLadyPeriam”5becausethetoiletsofthatcollegewerebuiltonthelanddonatedbyLadyPeriam.Ofcourse,Americanswillnotagreewiththisexpression.“Secondisthedifferenceofgeographicenvironment.Forexample,inseaside,deathwouldbeconnectedwithseaandtide.Theymayusegowiththetidetoexpressdie.Onthecontrary,inAmericanwestmountainareas,theeuphemismfordieis(gone)overtherangeortocrosstheGreatDivide.Thesearethetypicalregionaleuphemisms.”62.5DiversityoflingualregionSomeonethinksthatonlyupperandmiddleclassuseeuphemism.Butthisconclusionistooabsolute.Wecananalyzethisinthreeaspects.2.5.1Differencesofgenderorage“Astudyshowsthatfemaleusemoreeuphemismsthanmaledo.ThereisasayinginEnglish:horsesweat；menperspire；youngladiesglow.(Brock,1973:73)Womenuseobscurewordtoexpresstheactionofsweat.Andthedifferenceofgenderandageusuallyinfluencethechoiceofthesynonymsofeuphemism.Forinstance,thereareavarietyofexpressionsaboutgototoilet.Menusetheexpressiontoshootalion.Adultsmaysaytogotow.c.Andchildrensaytogotothepot.”72.5.2DifferenceofprofessionoridentityEuphemismchangeswhiletheprofessionandidentitychange.Thisisasynchronyvariation.Theword“die”canbeusedinmanydifferentways.“Inmilitary,peopleusetheexpressiontolosenumberofonesmess.ThisexpressionorientsfromthemesssystemofUKnavy.However,inthepress,peopleoftenusethewordthirtybecausetheyusuallymark30intheendofanewsarticle,whichmeansending.”82.5.3DifferenceofstyleorcontextStylistically,theword“die”hashundredsofeuphemisms.Butindailycommunication,peoplemayuse“tobegone”or“tobenomore”.Inobituary,peopleuse“topassaway”or“todepart”.Italsohassomewittyexpressions,forinstance,“topopoff”or“tokickthebucket”.Euphemismisrestrictedbythecontext.Forexample,“Onthe14thofMarch,ataquartertothreeintheafternoon,thegreatestlivingthinkerceasedtothink.(F.Engels,SpeechattheGravesideofKarlMarx)”9Thisexampleinvolvesthepassingawayofagreatman.Andthephrase“ceasedtothink”echoes“thinker”.Thiseuphemismproducesagoodeffect.3.Pragmaticfunctionsofeuphemism3.1Taboofunction“Tabooisthemainpsychologicalbasisoftheemergenceofeuphemism.Euphemismistheavoidanceoftheunpleasant,inelegantthings.AfamoussociolinguistMr.ChenYuanoncesaid:Generallyspeaking,thecomingintobeingofeuphemismallbeginsfromtaboo.Fromtheoriginofeuphemism,wecanseethattabooisthefirstfunctionofeuphemism.Euphemismhasbeenusingforalongtime,anditiscloselyrelatedtotaboo.Infact,euphemismdatesbacktothelanguagetaboointheearlyperiodofhumancivilization.Whenpeopletrytoavoidandgiveuptaboowords,theyhavetofindanotherwordtoreplacethisvacancyatthesametime.Hence,peoplecreatedeuphemism.”10Therearesometaboothings,suchasbirth,death,funeral,sex,nakedness,defecation,andurinate.Iftheyareexpresseddirectly,theyarecalledtaboowordsandthefeelingstheygiveusarevulgar,crudeandharsh,whereasiftheyareexpressedindirectly,theyarecalledeuphemism,andtheimpressionstheymadeonusareelegant,implicitandpolite.Theevadingfunctionofeuphemismalsoworkstoday.Sometaboonotionscannotbeeasilyremovedfrompeoplesmind.Thoughscienceandtechnologyarehighlydevelopedtoday,theword“death”isthetaboowordstoallnations.Thustherearealotofeuphemismsrelatedwithit.“Suchaspassaway,answerthefinalcall,beasleepinJesus,besafeinthearmsofJesus,beatrest,becalledtoGod,behomeandfree,beinAbrahamsbosom,crosstheRiverJordan,finalsleep,gohome,gotomeetonesmaker,gotoonesownplace,joinonesancestors,jointhegreatmajority,returntodust,withGod,benolongerwithus,paythedebtofnature,tickthebucket,etc.”11“Amongthose,one-way-ticketisthesynonymofdie.Itreflectsthespeakersexperienceoflife.Lifeisjustliketravel.Peoplesetouttotravel,butwhentheyarrivetothetermination,theycannotgoback.Inthepast,peopleoftenusedgraveyardtoexpresstheplacewherethedeadsleeppeacefully.Buttheassociationsitgivesusarehorrifiedandgloomy.Sonow,peopleusefuneralhomeandmemorialparktoreplacethem.Insuchaway,itcomfortspeople.”123.2PolitefunctionPolitefunctionofeuphemismistoavoidinelegantthingsandmakepeoplefeelpleasant.AsJoannaChannellputinherbookVagueLanguage“Vaguenessisusedasonewayofadheringtothepolitenessrulesforaparticularculture,andofnotthreateningface.”13Itmeansthatinreallife,whenpeoplemeetwithsomeunpleasantthingsorbehaviors,theyusuallychoosesomevagueexpressionstoavoidmakingboldorhurtingothersfeeling-touseeuphemism.Itisharshtosaysomeoneisdeaf,sopeopleuse“auditory-impaired”toreplaceit.Theysoundmoregracefully.“WhenEnglish-speakersrefertotheappearance,theydontusetheworduglyorawful,whichhasstrongderogatorysense.Instead,theyusethewordplain-lookingornotpretty.”14Westernersaresensitivetoage.Intheiropinion,“old”equalsto“useless”insomeextent.Inordernottohurtthefeelingandself-esteemoftheold,“oldmen”arereplacedby“seniorcitizens”or“seasonedmen”.Fortheword“senior”hasmanymeanings.Except“older”,italsomeanshigherinrankorauthority.Andtheword“seasoned”meansexperienced.“Followingaresomeeuphemismsaboutprofession.”15HarshexpressioneuphemismbutcherMeattechnologistChimneyworkerChimneyconsultantfiremanFirefighterGarbagemanSanitationengineerhairdresserHairstylisthousekeeperHouseholdexecutivePress-agentPublicrelationcounselorPrisonguardCorrectionalofficer3.3CoveringupfunctionInVaguenessLanguage,Channellstatedcoveringupfunctionasdeliberatelywithholdinginformation.Whatissocalled“coverup”means“notgivinginformationwhichthespeakerpossessesandwhichcouldbeappropriateinthesituation.”16Westernpoliticallifegivesbirthtoeuphemism.Somepoliticiansandnewsmediashavemadegooduseofthevaguenessofeuphemismtocoverupthefactsofsomeeventsforthepurposeofmakingthepolitics,economy,andmilitarymoresteady.Concealingthedarksideofsocietyistoalleviatethesocialcontradictionscausedbysex,violence,poverty,unemployment,andcrime.Therearesomeeuphemismsaboutsocialphenomena.“Venerealdisease”hasbeenbeautifiedas“socialdisease”.“Rape”,akindofcrime,ismentionedcasuallyas“interferewith”；“prostitutionbecameahigh-soundingprofession-theoldestprofessionintheworld.”17Inpoliticiansview,violenceisakindofactionanddismissalisalso“layoff”.Peopledontneedtobesurprisedatthesephenomena.Inwesterncountries,polit