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语言文化论文-浅谈非言语交际及其在交际中的影响AbstractSincelanguagehasbeencomeintobeing,itplaysacommandingroleasameansofcommunication,butnottheonlymeansofit.Nonverbalcommunicationtakesplacewithverbaloneatthesametimeinthecommunication.However,verbalcommunicationconveysthemessageinaconvenientanddirectwaywhichmakespeopledependmoreonsuchcommunicativemeanswhileneglectthenonverbalone.Soitisnotsurprisingthattraditionallylanguagestudieshaveemphasizedverbalandwrittenforms,butrecentlynonverbalcommunicationhasreceivedmoreandmoreattentionandbecomeayoungsciencewhichisrelatedtomanyothersubjects.Afterbrieflyreviewingachievementsmadeinthestudyofnonverbalcommunication,thisthesisintroducesthedefinition,classification,function,andculturaldifferencesoncross-culturalnonverbalcommunication.Aimingtopointthesignificanceofnonverbalcommunication,itfocusesontheinfluenceofnonverbalcommunicativeapproachincommunication,especiallyinteachingwiththeimplicationtoit.Inreality,nonverbalcommunicationhasbeenwidelyusedinmanyfields,soitisnecessarytolearnsomethingaboutitinordertoimproveourcommunicativequality.KeyWordsnonverbalcommunication;culturaldifference;function;influence;teaching【摘要】自从语言产生以来,言语交际便在人类交际中扮演最主要的角色,但并非是交际的唯一手段。在传播过程中,非言语交际与言语交际是同时进行的,然而言语交际较为快捷地传递信息,因此人们较多依赖于此种交际手段而忽视非言语表达。难怪对于语言的研究,传统上较重视口语及书面语这两种言语交际形式,而很少顾及非言语交际形式;然而近年来,非言语交际手段越来越受到语言学家们的关注,成为一门跨学科的新兴科学。本文简述了非言语交际的研究成果,从定义、基本分类、功能、跨文化非言语交际的文化差异这几方面对其作了简要介绍。为了指出非言语交际的重要性,着重论述非言语交际在交际中的影响尤其对教学产生的影响,从而得出对教学的启示。在现实生活,非言语交际被广泛应用于许多领域,因此为提高交际质量有必要对非言语交际作一些了解。【关键词】非言语交际;文化差异;功能;影响;教学IntroductionSincelanguagehasbeencomeintobeing,itbecomesthemostimportantcommunicativetoolforhumanbeing,butnottheonlyone.Whenweareinvolvedincommunicating,weneedtomobilizeourfacialexpression,bodymovement,intonation,temperature,color,smell,clothingandbodydecoration,time,spaceandmanyotherwaystocommunicatewitheachother,besidesusinglanguagetotransmitinformation.Thesemeansforcommunicationwithoutwordsareso-callednonverbalcommunication.TraditionallyLanguagestudieshaveemphasizedverbalandwrittenforms,andrecentlynonverbalcommunicationhasreceivedmoreandmoreattention.InmypaperIllpresentsomebasicconceptions,functions,culturaldifference,andinfluenceonteachingespecially.1.AbriefreviewofnonverbalcommunicationstudiesTheearlieststudyofnonverbalcommunicationcouldbetracedbacktothatofvariousschoolsofthinkersinpre-QinDynastyandGreekphilosopherAristotle.ConfuciuspaidmoreattentiontoappearanceandpostureindifferentoccasionsandAristotleanalyzedexpressivewaysofbehaviorsinhisworks.1(P10)ThescientificstudyofnonverbalcommunicationprimarilystartedafterWorldWarII.Oneofthemostinfluentialpre-twentiethcenturyworkswasDarwinsExpressionoftheEmotionsinManandAnimalsin1872.Thisworkspawnedthemodernstudyoffacialexpression,andmanyofhisobservationsandideashavebeenvalidatedbyotherresearchers.Inthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury,thestudyofnonverbalcommunicationstillremainedunsystematicfortherewereonlyisolatedstudiesofvoice,physicalappearance,dressandfacialexpressions.ThethreeinfluentialworksduringthisperiodwereKretschmersbookPhysiqueandCharacterin1925,SheldonsbookTheVariationsofHumanPhysiquein1940,andEfronsbookGestureandEnvironmentin1941.In1950s,therewasasignificantincreaseinthenumberofnonverbalresearchefforts.BirdwhistellsIntroductiontoKinesicsin1952andHallsSilentLanguagein1959weretwomilestonesofthisdecade.In1956,RueschandKeesproducedabookentitledNonverbalCommunication:NotesontheVisualPerceptionofHumanRelations.Thiswasthefirstbooktousethetermnonverbalcommunicationinitstitle.1960sproduceda“nuclearexplosion”ofnonverbalstudies.Duringthistime,theclassictheoreticalpiecewasEkmansandFriesensarticleontheorigins,usage,andcodingofnonverbalbehavior.The1970sprovedtobeatimeofsummarizingandsynthesizingonnonverbalstudies.ItbeganwithJuliusFastsBodyLanguagein1970.Thisbookwasthebest-sellingvolumeatthattimeandithasnowbeentranslatedintoseveralChineseversions.The1980swereatimeoffurtherdevelopmentofnonverbalcommunicationstudies.Somenonverbalresearchesofthisdecadefocusedonidentifyingthewaysavarietyofnonverbalsignalsworktogethertoaccomplishcommoncommunicativegoals.Theresearchonnonverbalbehaviorinourcountrybeganfrom1980s.ScholarssuchasHuWenzhong,BiJiwan,DengYianchangandLiuRunqinghavedonesomeresearchwork.2(P40-41)Whywebegantheresearchonnonverbalcommunicationlaterthanwesterncountries,sofarasIknow,thereresomereasonsforit.SinceJosephStalinhadcriticizedthe“gesture”ofMarin1950,thescholarsinourcountrywhostudiedlinguistictheoryconsidereditasguidingprincipletoconfirmthefunctionoflanguagecommunicationabsolutelywithoutconsideringthepositionandfunctionofnonverbalcommunicationincommunication.Asaresult,therangeofstudyisonlylimitedtolanguageandcommunicativetoolbasedonlanguage.1(P1)Andduring1960s-1970sCulturalRevolutionhappenedinourcountrybringingadisastertothestudyofthisfield.2.DefinitionandclassificationofnonverbalcommunicationTherearevariousdefinitionsfornonverbalcommunicationamongdifferentscholars.AccordingtoKnapp2(P41)thephrasenonverbalcommunicationreferstocommunicationeffectbymeansotherthanwords(assumingwordsaretheverbalelement).Whendefiningnonverbalcommunication,SamovarandPorterproposethat“nonverbalcommunicationinvolvesallthosenonverbalstimuliinacommunicationsettingthataregeneratedbyboththesourceandhisorheruseoftheenvironmentandthathavepotentialmessagevalueforthesourceorreceiver”.Inthisdefinition,theroleoftheenvironment,themessagevalueofnonverbalstimuliandthecommunicationsettingareemphasizedasthreeimportantfactorsinnonverbalcommunication.2(P41)Inshort,nonverbalmeansforcommunication,whichisconsideredas“silentlanguage”,expressesmeaningsorfeelingswithoutusingwords.Asdifferentlinguistsdescribenonverbalcommunicationindifferentdimensions,thereisnogeneralagreementinclassificationasyet.Hereweonlyproposesomeofthecommontopicsmostcommunicationtheoristsaddressthemselvesto:“Nonverbalcommunicationconsistsofallsignalingsystemsthatdonotusewords.”3(P181)1)bodymodesofnonverbalcommunication(kinesics):posture,gestures,eyecontact,facialexpressions,appearance,smell,shiftsinskincolor,usesofclothingandbodydecoration,bodyorientation,anyothermovementofanyotherpartofthebody;2)spacelanguage(bodydistanceorproxemics):bodytouchandbodydistance;3)paralanguage(voicemodulation):speed,pitch,volume,pause,intonation,etc;4)timelanguage:timeorientation(past,present,andfuture),monochromic(M-time)andpolychromic(P-time);5)environmentalcommunication(interrelationshipbetweenpeopleandtheirenvironments):architecture,object,color,lighting,odorsetc;6)communicationofgeneticcharacteristics,whichareconsideredbysomescholarsasnonverbalcommunication;7)variousartformsandmediasuchaspainting,architecture,music,film,ballet,andmime3.FunctionsofnonverbalbehaviorincommunicationInsometypesofcommunicationpeopleexpressmorenonverballythanverbally.“OnestudydoneintheUnitedStatesshowedthatinthecommunicationofattitudes,93%ofthemessagewastransmittedbythetoneofthevoiceandbyfacialexpressions,whereasonly7%ofthespeakersattitudewastransmittedbywords.”4(P122)Nonverbalcommunicationissignificantinhumaninteractionbecauseitisusuallyresponsibleforfirstimpression.Thinkforamomentforhowoftenyourfirstjudgmentsarebasedonthecolorofapersonsskinorthemannerinwhichheorsheisdressed.Moreimportant,thoseinitialmessagesusuallyinfluencetheperceptionofeverythingelsethatfollows.Nonverbalbehaviorsandverbalcommunicationinteractincommunicationprocess.Forsimplicity,nonverbalcommunicationservestorepeat,complement,reinforce,substitute,regulateorevencontradictourverbalbehavior.4(P137-139)3.1RepeatingNonverbalcommunicationcansimplyrepeatwhatwassaidverbally.Forinstance,verbalstatementsofagreementordisagreementareoftenaccompaniedbyanodorshakeoftheheadtoconveypositiveornegativefeelings.Wemightholdupourhandinthegesturethatsignifiesapersontostopatthesametimeweactuallyusetheword“stop”.Orwemightpointinacertaindirectionafterwehavejustsaid(whentellapersonthewaytotherailwaystation,yougenerallyaddalittleinformationbypointingintheproperdirection.).Thesecouldbeconsideredrepetitionbecausetheyindicatethesamemeaningastheverbalmessages.3.2ComplementingCloselyrelatedtorepeatingiscomplementing.Althoughmessagesthatrepeatcanstandalone,complementinggenerallyaddsmoreinformationtomessages.Nonverbalsignalscanmodifyorelaborateonverbalmessages.Theactorsoractressesofcomedyorskitorshortcrosstalkaregoodatperformingbodylanguagetomaketheirperformancelivelyandmoreeasilyattracttheattentionofaudiences.Ifyoutellyourfriendthatyouhavenomoneytolendhim,youmayturnoutyourpocketstoshowyoursincereregret.Youcantellsomeonethatyouarepleasedwithhisorherperformance,butthismessagetakesonextrameaningifyoupatthepersonontheshoulderatthesametime.Theseimportantactionshelpustocomplement,completeourverbalbehavior.Youcanseehowanapologybecomesmoreforcefulifyourface,aswellasyourwords,issaying,“Imsorry.”Thisfunctionofnonverbalcommunicationindicatesthatnonverbalcommunicationissupplementarytoverbalbehaviorincommunication.Ifitseparatesfromverballanguage,themessageconveyedbynonverbalsymbolswillfailtobeunderstoodwhichresultsinfailureofperformingnormalhumancommunication.BritishPrimeMinisterWinstonChurchillstressedtheartofspeech.Onceinhisspeech,hesaid,“Thelevelofourlifenowhasexceededanytimeinhistory,forweeatsomuch.”Tothispoint,hestoppedonpurposelookingattheaudiencesforawhile.Thenhecontinuedwiththefingerpointingtohishugestomach,“thisispowerfulevidence.”Churchillusednonverbalapproachtwicetoassistverballanguage.Atfirst,heintentionallyusedpausetoattracttheattentionofthemass;thenheskillfullyusedthebodylanguage-pointinghisbeerbellytoreceivevivideffect.5(P17)Soonlywhenlinguisticcommunicationsystemmixeswithnonverbalcommunicationcanitformacompletecommunicativesystem.Ifitbreaksawayfromthecooperationandassistanceofnonverbalbehavior,itishardtoattaineffectivegoalofcommunication.3.3ReinforcingNonverbalsignalsmaybeusedtoemphasizeaportionoftheverbalmessage.Peoplefrequentlyusemovementsoftheheadandhandssuchasnods,blinks,squints,andshrugs,tohelpaccentorpunctuatetheverbalmessage.Ifyousay“Iloveyou”tosomeoneyoucareabout,ahugorkissisusuallyfollowed.Reinforcingcanalsobeachievedbychangingthepitchorstressonawordorgroupofwords.Ourentiremeaningreliesmoreheavilyonwordsthatareaccented.Forinstance:(1)Iwanttotalkwithhim.(Thesentencemeaninglaysemphasisonthepersonwhowantstotalk.)(2)Iwanttotalkwithhim.(Thesentencemeaningreliesontheactionthatthepersonwantstoperform.)(3)Iwanttotalkwithhim.(Thesentencemeaningputsstressontheconversationalpartnerwithwhomthepersonwantstocommunicate.)3.4SubstitutingWeusesubstitutioninnonverbalcommunicationwhenweperformsomeactioninsteadofspeaking.Quiteafewnonverbalmessagesarecommonlyusetotaketheplaceofwords.Ifyouseeaveryspecialfriend,youareapttoenlargethesizeofyoursmileandthrowopenyourarmstogreethimorher,whichisasubstituteforallthewordsitwouldtaketoconveythesamefeeling.Ifagroupofpeopleisboisterous,youmightplaceyourindexfingertoyourlipsasanalternativetosaying,“PleasecalmdownsothatIcanspeak.”Sometimes,whenwearetoosadorexcitedtosayanything,wejustkeepsilent.Oursilencemayreplaceanyverbalmessages.Insomesituationverbalwordsareunnecessaryforsilenceatthemomentsurpasseswords.6(P12)BeforeIraqwasintrudedbytheUS,Iraqiex-presidentSaddamHusseinfiredtowardtheskyinthepresenceofthemasstoshowtheangerandthedecisionoffightingagainsttheUS.(fromTVreport)TheactionthepresidentshowedwouldbemorepowerfulthanwordsthatcalledontheIraqipeopletocounterattackAmericantroops.Fordeaf-mutes,borntobeunabletocommunicateverballylikenormalpeople,thesignlanguageorgestureprovidesopportunityforthemtocommunicatewithothersinthesilentworld.Inthiscase,nonverbalcommunicationreplacesthefunctionofverbalone.Fornonverbalcommunicationtoactassubstitution,itmustbeinterpretedinspecificculture.Herearesomeexamples:Ifwetrytouseourculturesnonverbalsubstitutesinanotherculture,misunderstandingsmayoccur.Arabmenoftengreetbykissingonbothcheeks.InBuddhismcountriesofSoutheastAsialikeThailand,peoplegreetwithbothhandsclosedinfrontofchest.InJapan,mengreetbybowing,andintheUnitedStates,peopleshakehands.Americanswhosay“I”bypointingtotheirchestswouldnotbeunderstoodinJapan,where“I”issymbolizedbypointingtoonesnose.3.5RegulatingWeoftenregulateandmanagecommunicationbyusingsomeformofnonverbalbehavior:wenodourheadinagreementtoindicatetoourcommunicationpartnerthatweagreeandthatheorsheshouldcontinuetalking;orweremainsilentforamomentandletthesilencesendthemessagethatwearereadytobeginourspeech.Nonverbalbehaviorsusuallyrepresentthemostefficientandleastoffensivemeansofregulatinginteraction.Tosay,“Shutup,Tom”maytriggerahostileanddefensivereaction;topresentthesamemessagebyeyecontactorgestureisamoredesirableway.Noddingandeyecontactaretwotypicalnonverbalhintsthatmean“Iwanttotalk”and“Itsyourturntotalk”.Whenwewanttoindicatewehavefinishedspeakingandtheotherpersoncanstartinaconversation,wemayincreaseoureyecontactwiththeotherperson.Conversely,ifwewanttokeeptheotherfromspeaking,wemaydecreaseeyecontactandperhapsraisethevolume.Whenwedonotwanttotakeaspeakingturn,wemightreinforceourheadnodsandmaintainattentiveeyecontact.Rapidnodsmaysignalthespeakertohurryupandfinishwhileslowandsilentnodsusuallyindicatethespeakerstalkingwillcontinue.3.6ContradictingThetermcontradictingincludesavarietyofwaysverbalandnonverbalsignalsarenotinagreementwitheachother.Ayoungwomantoldherpsychologicaldoctorthatshewasdeeplyinlovewithherboyfriendwithshakingherheadatthesametimethatunconsciouslydisapprovedwhatshesaid.7(P3)“Hethathaseyestoseeandearstohearmayconvincehimselfthatnomortalcankeepasecret.”(SigmundFreud3(P181)Thatistosay,ournonverbalactionswouldtellthetruthsthataretriedtocoverbyverbalmessages.Youtellsomeoneyouarerelaxedandatease,yetyourvoicequaversandyourhandsshake.Thecontradictorymessageoccursbecausepeopledonotwanttotellthetruthandtheydonotwanttolie.Inmostcases,wedontliketocontradictothers,hurttheirfeelingorletthemloseface.Whenafriendgaveaterriblepresentation,wemaysay“Youdiditquitewell.”butourvoice,faceandbodymaynotsupportthewords.Onotheroccasions,peopleevenusecontradictorymessagestocommunicatesarcasmorirony,sayingonethingwithwordsbutmeaningtheoppositewithvocaltoneorfacialexpressions.Becausepeoplerelymostlyonnonverbalmessageswhentheyreceiveconflictingdata,weneedtobeawareofthedangersinherentinsendingopposingmessages.4.SomenonverbalbehaviorsindifferentculturesMuchofourdifficultywithpeopleinothercountriesstemsfromthefactthatsolittleisknownaboutnonverbalcommunication.Formaltraininginthelanguage,history,government,andcustomsofanothernationisonlythefirststepinacomprehensiveprogram.Ofequalimportanceisanintroductiontothenonverballanguagewhichexistsineverycountryoftheworldandamongthevariousgroupswithineachcountry.Cultureisall-persuasive,multidimensional,andboundless;itiseverywhereandineverything.Thesameisalsotrueofnonverbalbehavior.Ourclothesandjewelry,thecountlessexpressionswecanreflectwithourface,thehundredsofmovementswecanmakewithourbodies,whereandhowwetouchpeople,ourgazeandeyecontact,vocalbehaviorssuchaslaughter,andouruseoftime,space,andsilencearejustsomeofthebehaviorsinwhichweengagethatserveasmessage.4.1GeneralappearanceanddressIninterculturalcommunication,appearanceandobjectsareimportantbecausethestandardsweapplyandthejudgmentswemakearesubjecttoculturalinterpretations.IntheUn

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