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Chapter6Pragmatics语用学Definition:Pragmaticscanbedefinedinvariousways.Itisthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.语言学研究语言使用者是如何运用语句进行成功交际的。Pragmaticscanalsoberegardedasakindofmeaningstudy.Pragmaticsisacomparativelynewbranchofstudyintheareaoflinguistics.语用学也可看做是一种意义研究。语用学是语言学领域中一个比较新兴的研究分支。Contextualview语境论Contextualviewplacesthestudyofmeaninginthecontextinwhichlanguageisused.Pragmaticsvs.semantics语用学语义学Graduallylinguistsfoundthatitwouldbeimpossibletogiveanadequatedescriptionofmeaningifthecontextwasleftunconsidered.Oncethenotionofcontextwastakenintoconsideration,semanticsspilledoverintopragmatics.Whatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.Ifisnotconsidered,thestudyisrestrictedtotheareaoftraditionalsemantics;ifitisconsidered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.语义学和语用学的根本区别在于意义研究是否考虑语境。不考虑语境,语义研究属于传统的语义学范围;考虑语境,意义研究就成了语用学研究的范围。ContextContextisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer.Thesharedknowledgeisoftwotypes:theknowledgeofthelanguagetheyuse,andtheknowledgeabouttheworld,includingthegeneralknowledgeabouttheworldandthespecificknowledgeaboutthesituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistakingplace.语境是语用研究的关键概念,一般指交际双方的共有知识。分为两类:一类是交际者对所用语言本身的知识,另一类是对客观世界的知识,包括对客观世界的一般只是和对交际情景的具体知识。Sentencemeaning&utterancemeaningAsentenceisagrammaticalconcept,andthemeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiedastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthesentenceitselfintermsofapredication.句子意义和话语意义句子是一个语法概念,从述谓结构上来说,句子意义经常被看做是句子本身所具有地抽象的内在特征。但是如果把句子看成人们在交际过程中实际所说的话,它就成了话语,话语应该在其实际应用的情景中予以考虑。EX:Thedogisbarking.Ifwetakeitasagrammaticalunitandconsideritasaself-containedunitinisolation,thenwearetreatingitasasentence.Ifwetakeitassomethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose,thenwearetreatingitasanutterance.把它看成语法单位时,它就是句子;把它看做说话人在特定情景中所说的带有特定目的的话,它就是话语。Whilethemeaningofasentenceisabstract,anddecontextualizd,anutteranceisconcrete,andcontext-dependent.Utteranceisbasedonsentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication.句子意义是抽象的,不依赖语境;而话语意义是具体的,依赖语境。话语意义基于句子意义,是句子意义在特定交际情景或者语境中的具体体现。EX:Mybagisheavy.句子属于predication述谓结构BAG(BEINGHEAVY)Itcouldbeutteredbyaspeakerasastraightforwardstatement,tellingthehearerthathisbagisheavy.Itcouldalsobeintendedbythespeakerasanindirect,politerequest,askingthehearertohelphimcarrythebag.Anotherpossibleinterpretationoftheutteranceisthatthespeakerisdecliningsomeonesrequestforhelp.这句句子的话语意义会随着语境的变化而变化。有两种解释:一种是直截了当的陈述;另一种就是希望别人能帮他拎包。言语行为理论(SpeechActTheory)Speechacttheoryisanimportanttheoryinthepragmaticstudyoflanguage.ItwasoriginatedwiththeBritishphilosopherJohnAustininthelate50softhe20thcentury.Itisaphilosophicalexplanationofthenatureoflinguisticcommunication.言语行为理论是语用学研究的一个重要理论。它是英国哲学家约翰奥斯丁在20世纪50年代提出。从哲学意义上对语言交际的本质进行解释,目的在于回答“用语言干什么”这个问题。(Whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?)Austinmadeadistinctionbetweenwhathecalled“constatives”and“performatives”.Constativeswerestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andwerethusverifiable;performativesweresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastate,andwerenotverifiable奥斯丁对表述句和施为句进行区分。表述句用来陈述和描述;施为句不陈述事实,也不描述情况,且不能验证。四句典型:Ido.InamethisshipElizabeth.Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.这四个例子都是规约化的例子。但是说话是通过讲话来实施某种行为的这个理论,把所有非规约化的行为包括进来,比如陈述,许诺,请求和建议。这种理论被成为言语行为理论。Lateron,Austingaveuphisinitialdistinctionbetweenconstativesandperformatives.Hesetanewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryact,andperlocutionaryact.Alocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.Anillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeakersintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.Aperlocutionaryactistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.之后奥斯丁建立了三种行为的新模式。“言内行为,言外行为,言后行为。”言内行为是说出词,短语,分句的行为,是通过句法,词汇和音位等手段表达字面意义的行为。言外行为是表达说话人意图的行为,是在说话过程中所完成的行为。言后行为是通过说话完成或通过说话所产生的行为,是由话语所带来的结果或变化。Ex:Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.Thelocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhathehasutteredallthewordsandexpressedwhatthewordsliterallymean.此句的言后行为就是让人关门。Theillocutionaryactperformedbythespeakeristhatbymakingsuchanutterancehehasexpressedhisintentionofspeaking,askingsomeonetoclosethedoor.Theperlocutionaryactreferstotheeffectoftheutterance.Ifthehearergetsthespeakersmessageandseesthatthespeakermeanstoasksomeonetoclosethedoor,thespeakerhassuccessfullybroughtaboutthechangeintherealworldhehasintendedto;thentheperlocutionaryactissuccessfullyperformed.Linguistsaremostinterestedintheillocutionaryactbecausethiskindofspeechactisidenticalwiththespeakersintention.JohnSearlehasmadehisclassificationofillocutionaryacts.Speechactsfallintofivegeneralcategories.语言学家在上述言语行为中最感兴趣的是言外行为,是说话人如何表达他的意图和听说人如何识别说话人的意图。美国哲学语言学家约翰舍尔对言语行为理论作出了很大的贡献。他将言外行为分成了五种基本类型:1阐述类(representatives)(Istate)Ihaveneverseenthemanbefore.2指令类:(directives)Openthewindow.3承诺类:(commisives)Ipromisetocome.4表达类:(expressives)Itsreallykindofyoutohavethoughtofme.5宣告类:(declarations)Inowdeclarethefloorisopen.Theillocutionarypointoftherepresentativesistocommitthespeakertosomethingsbeingthetruthofwhathasbeensaid.Stating,believing,swearing,hypothesizingareamongthemosttypicaloftherepresentatives.Alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposeorthesameillocutionarypoint.,buttheydifferintheirstrengthorforce.Swearguessbelieve会话原则principleofconversationAstheobjectiveofpragmaticstudyistoexplainhowlanguageisusedtoeffectsuccessfulcommunicationandconversation,asthemostcommonandnaturalformofcommunicationhasbecomethefocusofinterestformanyscholars.语用学研究的目的是要解释语言是如何用来进行成功交际的。PaulGricefoundthatformallogiccouldntbeappliedtonaturallanguage,andthusconcludedthatnaturallanguagehasitsownlogic.保罗格赖斯发现形式逻辑对自然语言不适用并因此得出结论:自然语言有自己的逻辑。Hisideaisthatinmakingconversation,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.ThisgeneralprincipleiscalledtheCooperationPrinciple.(合作原则)其观点:在会话中,参与会话的人首先得愿意合作,否则会话无法进行。此基本原则称为合作原则,简称CP。Therearefourmaximsunderthisgeneralprinciple:这条基本原则包括四种准则:Themaximofquantity:数量准则:1所说的话应包含(当前交谈目的)所需要的信息。2所说的话不包含超出需要的信息。Themaximofquality:质量原则:1不要说自知是虚假的话。2不要说缺乏足够证据的话。Themaximofrelation:关联准则:要有关联Themaximofmanner:方式准则:1避免晦涩2避免歧义3说话要简练4要有条理EX:DoyouknowwhereMr.Xlives?Somewhereinthesouthernsuburbsofthecity.违反了数量原则Wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?ImafraidImnotfeelingsowelltoday.TheybothknewthatBfeelingsowell,butBcheatedA.BbreaksQuality

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