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Frontiers of Architectural Research(2012)1,253258 Available online at wwwsciencedirectcom SciVerse ScienceDirect wwwelseviercornlocatefoar Frontiers of ArchitecturaI Research RESEARCH ARTICLE Phenomenology of rhythm in design ChiuShui Chana,b,术 Department of Architecture,482,College of Design,Iowa State University,Ames,Iowa 5001 7,USA School of Urban DesignWuhan University,430072 China Received 30 March 2012;received in revised fOrm 27 June 2012;accepted 28 June 2012 I(EYWORDS Rhythm: Repetition; Phenomenotogy; Design cognition; Design thinking 1 1 ntr0ducti0n Abstract Rhythm in design,as explored in this research,is proposed to be the result of cognitive performance generated stytisticaUy by creators and recognized consciously by beholdersThis study describes the phenomenon of rhythm;how jt js created;the factors that comprise rhythm;the types of rhythms created by human cognition of repetition,and why repetition is recognized as a part of human cognitionImages of seven buildings designed by Alvar Aatto are used to demonstrate the creation and expression of rhvthm in building compositionsEvidence gatheredn this research explains that rhvthm 1n designs a result of the design method consciously appied by human cognition of repetitionRules of generating the phenomena of rhvthm are also summarizedDesigners could apply these rules to generate harmonious patterns through the e仟ective usage of repetitionIn sum,rhVthm 1s ingrained in the human conscience and therefore should be a key component of design applied universally 201 2Higher Education Press Limited CompanyProduction and hosting by Elsevier B AII rights reserved Design is a product of human cognitionEvery designer has their own way of thinking,each with a different background and approach to design that generate unique,individual Correspondence address:Department of Architecture,482,Cot 1ege of Design,Iowa State University,Ames,owa 5001 1,USA Te1:+1 515 294 8326;fax:+1 51 5 294 1440 E-maif address:cschaniastateedu Peer review under responsibility of Southeast University ELSEvIER Production and hosting by Elsevier design resultsAmong di竹erent products done by different designers,some phenomena do recur in the appearance of certain f0rmsSome of them are visually appealing and attractive due to the visua【expression of specific qualities These visuaI qualities are accomplished by speciaI composi- tionaI methods applied in the process of creationSome of these phenomena could be seen,measured,and analyzed to get more understand1n砭On both the quaity of design and on the process of design creationsRhvthmn design that has a dear pattern recognized by human perception is one example of the phenomena occurringn the design products ands the focus of this research It is interesting to investigate the factors that cause rhythm to appear in designIn fact,rhythm is not just one of the design methodologies used for f0rm generationit also is 2095-26352012Higher Education Press Limited CompanProduction and hosting by Elsevier B ALL rights reserved http:IdxdoiorglO1016j1oan201206003 254 C-SChan the result of cognitive processing and only comprehended through human perceptionIn this article,concepts of design cognition and perception are discussed fr0m an approach treating design as a way of organizing information through human reasoningTheoretically speaking,design cognition 1s a part of the human cognitive process of gathering,recognizing,collecting,memorizing,recaUng, and processing design information by designers(Chan,1 990, 2008);whereas perception is another part of the human cognitive process of recognizing and interpreting externa【 jnformation obtained through sensuaI input by beholders Explained from the point of view of cognition,rhythm could be seen as an entity,generated by designers through some cognitive processing,and recognized visually as appearing in design productsRhythm,as created by the processes and revealed in the products of human cognitionjs jngrained jn human consciousness and therefore should be a key compo nent of design applied universally In this research,the definition of rhythm,how it is created,and whyts a part of human design cognition are explored through case studiesEven though rhvthm is seen as a phenomenonit has not been approached frOm a phenomenologicapoint of view on what thing(ie,rhythm) means(Brentano,1995)Instead,the study quantifies positive facts and observable event that can be seen, measured,and be counted as facts,which is best described as a positivist perspective fScharff,1 9951Thus,rhvthm as a product of design cognition 1s a phenomenon that we believe can be seen,measured,and analyzed to get more understandjn叠0n the quality of design and the process of design creationStudiesn this approach would generate more theoreticaI and scientific cOnt r1buti0ns to the fields of design studies and design thinkingHoweveG not many studies have been donen this regardThis project takes a leadn this direction 2Phenomena and definition of rhythm Rhvthm has been defined in various fields of arts and performing arts sharing the central meaning of a pat- terned recurrence,repetition,or movement in actions or artfactsIn design,rhythm 1s the regular,harmonious recurrence of a specific element,often a single specific entity coming frOm the categories of【ine,shape,form, color,Iightshadow,and soundIf a designer chooses elements fr0m these categories and creates some composi。 tion of these elementsthen a motif or pattern is gener- atedThe designer could also repetitively apply a single element,a composed motif or pattern at regular modeAs long as a visually or auditory harmonious composition is generated,through repetition,a rhythm 1s createdof course,a hybrid composition of such entities across cate- gories should also serve the same purposesHowever,with- out having or experiencing the comfortable visual or auditory results of element repetitions,rhVthm would not existOn the other hand,designers working with singular massing and uniform detailing strategies might have pro duce different outcomes Rhythm on dictionary,URL:http:dictionaryreferencecom browserhythm 3Factors causing rhythm Rhythm,as defined,s created by repetitionRepetition is a cognitive way of processing informationIn language arts repetition fs a persuasive strategy used to affect or coordi- nate attitudes,especially when terms are used repeatedly in question begging form(Boisvert,201 1)In writing, repetition 1s a rhetorical device used to emphasize a point notion,or meaningThere are a number of methods used 1n writing,for example,the repetition of a single word with no words in between(paliogia);or a word in various places throughout a paragraph(conduplicatio),or used a word at the end of a sentence and then used 1t again at the beginning of the next sentence(anadiplosis);or repeating a word or phrase at the beginning fanaphoral,middle (mesodiplosis),or the end(epistrophe)of every clause (see note 2 on rhetorica【devices) Thus,applying different methods of repetition,different results of emotionaI inspiration are generated,which demonstrate that Ianguage is an instrument or tool for serving certain purposes (Boisvert,201 1)1n music,the repetition of a fixed rhyme, beat,or melody has also been used to generate music fYeston1 976) In【earning,the practice of learning by repetition,which is called rote learning or rehearsa1s another form 0f cognitive strategyRehearsaI serves the purpose of main- taining a smatI set of jterns 1n short-term memory by repetition,and any information in short-term memory is transferred to long-term storage to some degree throughout jts stay in short-term memory fWaugh&Norman。1 965; Atkinson and Shiffrin,1 9681,which helpsn human【earning More rehearsa【or repetition oftems 1n practice would improve our ski【and memorySpecifically,repeated expo sure to a piece of information does provide the opportunity for more elaborate processing or extent of semantic processing of the stimuiThis explains that repetition is a cognitive process FrOm the point of view of cognition repetitively using the same set of features across many projects in architecture design(Chan,2000,2001)would inherently manifest a signature styleFor jnstance。Frank Lloyd Wright jn his designs repeatedly applied the features of a【ow pitch roof, 已ntered fireplace,a band of casement windows,contin- UOUS bands of window silt,extended terraces with【ow parapet and coping,watertable,corner blocks,planting urns,massive brick chimney,continuous wall between sitl and watertable,overhanging eaves,and symmetric side facade in the houses he designed fr0m 1 900 to 1 91 0These features have been used by scholars to exclusively define Wrights prairie house style(Chan,1992)Thus,repetition defines a design style In everyday Iifepeople often repeat the same routine, repeatedly drinking the same brand of beverage,navigating the same route to the same destination,OF fo1owing the same schedule every day to run errandsAfter the same things executed for more than thousands of times,they would be turnednto automatic skills of their procedural knowledge(Anderson,1980)Thus,a cause of repetition Rhetorical device, URL:http:enwikipediaO唱wiki Repetjti0n一rheto r1caLdeVjce) Rhythm in design 255 can be in the automatic execution of skills and repetition becomes a cognitive procedure for accomplishing things These research examplesconducted and explored 1n different fields。do demonstrate that repetitions the cognitive strategy used to persuade belief(in rhetoric),to emphasize a notion(in【iterature),to improve【earning(in psychology),to generate a styie(in design);and is the human cognitive operation used in everydays IifeBy the same tokenjn fields of design,repetition js also one of the cognitive mechanisms used frOm applying a basic module together with a set of rules to create a pattern that expresses rhvthm in designReasons for causing repetition in design could either be thententiona【plan or the wet【 practiced proceduraI knowledge that was automatically applied to create similar patternsThus,repetition and methods of application are the factors causing rhVthm,yet its basic driving forces repetition 4Phenomenology of rhythm Phenomenoogy of rhythm relates to the quality of repetition and how perceivers observe the resultsRhvthm,bV definition, s repetition and repetition could automatically create an order to the whole designSuch a created order is the character of rhVthmic phenomenaAnatyticaty speaking,rhythm generates some regutafity,simplicity,balance,and order of composition that allows the design to develop a nature of consistencyThe consistency would make the view easy to understand1n fact, after the rhvthmic pattern is recognized,the whole design could be clearly comprehendedTherefore,repetition with s1milar movement andor transformation rules would always generate an ordered patternSuch created patterns could catI viewersvisuaI attention to put more cognitive process for investigating the semantic context of the pattern 5 Rules creating rhythm in design Rules that create rhvthm can be described as a set of operating procedures applied to create f0rmsIn a design there are many functiona【design issues that must be considered and rhvthm may or may not be one 0f them Yet,regardless of whether rhVthm has been considered as a des1gn 1ssue or notas【ong as a rhythm appeared in a building design,ts phenomena demonstrate the effort of thinking about specific arrangementsHere are the exam ples explaining the rules applied for creation,which are categorized by the nature of repetition 1Repetition in f0rms fregular rhvthm):A regular rhvthm 1s created by repeating an element through regular recur- rence frule 11):and the repeated elements are often similarn size or length(rule 12)In graphic design,it could be a shape that re-occurs by some jntervals or in certain patterns to constitute a designIn architectura【 designit could be the repetition of a single warI unit or vertical opening in Figures 1 and 2or balcony unit in Figure 3 to f0rT11 a fa(adeor simple shape to composite the roof in Figure 4Figures 14 were designs done by Avar Aalto 2Repetition in structure(structure rhythm):A structure rhythm(rule 2)is created by combining beams and Figure 1 Church of the Plains by Aaito1 9511 960Note: Photo:Kalevi AMkinen,Avar Aalto MuseumApproximately 1960 Figure 2 Muuratsalo,Experimental House by Aaito,1952 1 954Note:Photo:Eino M6kinen,Atvar Aalto Museum Figure 3 PaimiO Sanatorium by Aalto1 92832Photo:Photo- grapher unknown,Alvar Aalto Museum1 930s columns to form repetitive structural bays;and these structural elements are similar in size OF dimensions to 256 CSChan Figure 4 Rioa Church by Aato19661980Note:Photo:Maija Hotma,Avar Aato Museum1997 FiEure 5 Riota Church interior,Aalto,1 966 80Note:Riola Pa rish Church interior is adapted fr0m:http:snyfarvufarm ingda Leedustraawdesign2project3aivaraaitohtm【 maintain the structura【properties of equilibrium Figure 5 was the Riota Parish Church designed by Aalto, which has repeated curved beam and column structure that creates rhvthm 1n three-dimension 3Repetitionn lights freflective rhythm):A reflective rhVthm(rule 3)S created by opening up a surface with a repeated regular module to【et【ightnThe shadows casted on watts witl also create a reflective rhvthm Figure 5 has light coming through the beams and casting shadows on the wattFigure 6 iS a design by AaLto that shows the repetition of supports and voids used to define rhythm 4Repetitionn functions(spatia【rhVthm):ModuLe spaces often recur to accommodate similar or repetitive func- tiona【requirements jn building programfornstance standardized units of guest rooms(hote1),classrooms fschoo1),or patient rooms(hospita1)used in various build- n叠typologiesFigure 7 1S the Wotfsburg CulturaI Center designed by Aaltowhich has repeated simi【ar volume showing different spacesFigure 8 1S another un-built project by Aalto apptng smiIar concepts of spatial rhythm f0r an art museum jn IranThus,spatial rhythm(rule 41S Figure 6 Seinajoki Town Ha【by Aaito195865Note:Photo Ka|evi AM6kinen。Avar Aalto MuseumApproximately 1965 Figure 7 Wotfsburg Cultural Center by Aatto,1 95862Note Photo:Harald RaebigeAlvar Aaito Museum1 993 to repeat the sim1【ar shape of spaces attached with similar functjOnaIjtjesbut the dimensions of the shape could be changed regularly 5Repetition in movement(flowing rhvthm):A flowing rhvthm provides a motion of movement andS organic in nature(McCurgGenevese,2005)Figure 9 jS the example of flowing rhvthm in organic f0rmThe method used to create flowing rhvthm(rule 5)iS to morph the element, but maintan the smiIar interva【of movement and the same number of vertices andor polygons of the element 一 li Rhythm in design 257 RANMU3EUMOFM O D, E Figure 8 Shiraz Art Museum Photographer unknown,Avar a by Aalto,1 96970Note:Photo Aatto Museum b Figure 9 Flowing rhythm showing movementsNote:Flowing rhythm is adapted fr0m:http:wwwwritedesignoninecom resourcesldesignIruleslmarimekko。spr08JPg,and http:Ike seyessigblogspotcom120091031rhythm-in-interior-design-a【 so-may-behtm【 6Repetition in process(iterative rhythm):A rhythm could be generated not only by regular recurrence of an element,but also by iteration to create com- fortabte visual resultIteration,as used in computer Figure 1 0 Progressive rhythm showing movements programming,is the act of(rule 6)repeating the same process to approach a desired goaI or resultSimilarly, the same and simpte actions are repeated 1n ballet dancing and ballroom dancing to match with certain melodies fas 1n waltztango,salsa,rumba,etc)In musicsounds and silences are put together to f0rm patterns of sound,which are beats that repeated stea dity to create rhythm 7Repetition in growth(progressive rhythm):On the other hand,rhythm could also be created frue 7)by reverberating a shape or a form frOm a point and additively grow in a certain direction or fo1ow a path(Ching,1 979)For nstancethe form with rhythm could be generatedn a radial or concentnc manner about a point along a path with a gradua【jncreased intervaI fsee Figure 1O):jt could also be sequentially grown proportionally in size in a Iinear way;or it could be repeated random but maintain the proximity and simiIar1ty of a form 6 Impacts of rhythm in design Impacts of the phenomenon of rhythm t0 human perception could be considered and evaluated fn0m different perspectives in different fieldsInanguagerhythm 1s accomplished by the repetition of using the same words or placing the same words or phrases in writing to achieve the purposes of convincing argumentsIn alI poetry,repetition of a sound,syllableword phrase,Iine,stanza,or metdcaI pattern is a basic unif ng device to heighten emotional response and provide readea sense of balanceIn music,rhythm makes a music move and flowIn dance,as a fOrm of nonverbaI communicationrhythm guides the body movement as weI(Goodddge,1 998) 1n design,rhythm is made bV f0rm repetitionsAs Iong as the basic element is repeated with an ordered sequence,a pleasant pattern wiII be created and would be jdentified as a rhvthmThe phenomena of such a visuaI attraction wil【 generate a pleasant environment for living,working,and 258 CSChan recreationSuch a pleasant creationn product cou【d be valid to justify good quaity of designAvar Aatos works are excellent examplesShown in seven buildings(Figure 18l, the repetition of major forms of balcony,window patterns roof shapes,beam and columns,spatiaI volumes,and sky- lights had created poetic architectonic character of articula- tionn designGiven the strength of Aatos oeuvre。the correlation between repletion and articulation is dearly explained 7 C0ncIusi0ns RhVthm,in this study,is described as a patterned repetition of a motifor formaI element at regular or irreguar intervas in the same or a modified f0rm1f the fOrm is generated by regular repetition,a consistent orders generated and an integrated whole is presented1f the f0rm is generated at irreguarntervatsthe coherent order and grace IeveI that result jn the generation of rhvthm might be dilutedThis concept of diffeence between rhvthmic patterns relates to the notion of the degree of rhythm,which needs further studiesOn the other hand,a harmonious sequence or pattern of masses alternating with voidsa sequence of【ight alternating with shades or shadows,and a sequence of objects alternating with colors or textures al【quailfy as rhVthm After alI,rhythm js created by repetitionRepetition can be generated either through design intent 0r by automatic applications of we1 practiced design skillsDesigners may not consciously Iook for the repetitive results created in the pattern,but might subconsciously address the articutated patternsn the design processesHoweveG the effect of rhvthm created muSt be recognized through perception by viewersAs long as an element

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