医学词汇 课件.doc

医学词汇。An Introduction to Medical TerminologyChapter 1 History of medical terminology Medical terminology is a special vocabulary used by health care professionals for effective and accurate communication. Because it is based mainly on Greek and Latin words, medical terminology is consistent and uniform throughout the world. It is also efficient; although some of the terms are long, they often reduce an entire phrase to a single word. The one word gastroduodenostomy, for example, stands for “a communication between the stomach and the first part of the small intestine”. Influences of Greek and Latin on Medical Terminology Although medical termshave been drawn from many languages, a large majority are from Greek and Latin. I. Greek In Medical Terminology It is estimated that about three-fourths of our medical terminology is of Greek origin. Three reasons for this The main reason for this is that the Greeks were the founders of rational medicine in the golden age of Greek civilization in the 5th century B.C. The Hippocratic School and, later on, Galen (the Greek from Asia Minor who lived in Rome in the 2nd century A.D.) formulated the theories which dominated medicine up to the beginning of the 18th century. The Hippocratic were the first to describe diseases based on observation, and the names given by them to many conditions are still used today, such as arthritis, nephritis.Hippocrates of Cos or Hippokrates of Kos Historians agree that Hippocrates was born around the year 460 BC on the Greek island of Kos (Cos), and became a famous physician and teacher of medicine. He is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine and referred to as the father of Western medicine in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field as the founder of the Hippocratic School of medicine. This intellectual school revolutionized medicine in ancient Greece, establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields that it had traditionally been associated with (notably theurgy巫术 and philosophy), thus establishing medicine as a profession. A second reason for the large number of Greek medical terms is that the Greek language lends itself easily to the building of compounds. When new terms were needed, with the rapid expansion of medical science during the l9th century, Greek words or Latin words with Greek endings were used to express the new ideas, conditions, or instruments. The new words follow the older models so closely that it is impossible to distinguish the two by their forms. Such recent words as appendicitis, cystoscope, streptococcus链球菌, and many others do not appear different from the classical terms. The fact is that about one-half of our medical terminology is less than two centuries old. A third reason for using the classical roots is that they form an international language, easily understood by anyone familiar with the subject matter.II. Latin in Medical Terminology As the Romans conquered the then known world, Latin became the universal language of Italy and the provinces. Many centuries after the fall of Rome, Latin still ruled supreme. To this very day, Latin is the language of the Catholic Church，and during the formative period of the western European languages, it was incorporated in every one of them. The Roman languages, and especially French, is modern Latin, preserving most of the form and spirit of the ancient language. English is to some extent Germanic in form and part of its vocabulary is Germanic, but a considerable section is of Latin ancestry borrowed from the French. Most of the common roots of speech are Anglo-Saxon, but the moment we leave primitive life and advance to more civilized living, our words immediately become Latin. We walk, start, stop, breathe, sleep, wake, talk, live and lie in Anglo-Saxon, but we advance, retreat, approach, retire, inspire, confer, discuss, compare, refuse, debate, perish, survive in Latin, and the predominant part of the vocabulary of business, commerce, finance, government, diplomacy, and the sciences is Latin. Greek medicine migrated to Rome at an early date, and many Latin terms crept into its terminology. Latin was the language of science up to the beginning of the 18th century, so all medical texts were written in Latin. Under the influence of the great anatomical work of Andreas Vesalius, De humani corporis fabrica人体的构造 (1543), the terminology of anatomy is almost exclusively Latin. The Greek terms came into the English language through the Latin. Julius Caesar invaded Britain twice, in 55 and 54 BC.The Renaissance 13世纪末期，在意大利商业发达的城市，新兴的资产阶级中的一些先进的知识分子借助研究古希腊、古罗马艺术文化，通过文艺创作，宣传人文精神。 The Renaissance(1400-1600) was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the rest of Europe by the 16th century, its influence affected literature, philosophy, art, politics, science, religion, and other aspects of intellectual inquiry. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism and human emotion in art. In stark contrast to the High Middle Ages, when Latin scholars focused almost entirely on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural science, philosophy and mathematics, Renaissance scholars were most interested in recovering and studying Latin and Greek literary, historical, and oratorical texts. Broadly speaking, this began in the 14th century with a Latin phase, when Renaissance scholars scoured the libraries of Europe in search of works by Latin authors. By the early 15th century, the bulk of such Latin literature had been recovered; the Greek phase of Renaissance humanism was now under way, as Western European scholars turned to recovering ancient Greek literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts.医学词汇的发展史 医学词汇的特点与其发展史密切相关。古希腊文明源远流长，古希腊医学起源很早，在民间，符咒和驱邪相当流行，人们崇拜医神阿斯克勒庇俄斯（Aesculapius，the god of medicine and healing in ancient Greek religion ),如今的医学标识：手杖和蛇，即源自于这位伟大的希腊医神。希腊文化早于罗马文化，很多拉丁语源于希腊语。古希腊医学家希波克拉底(Hippocrates, 460-377BC)留下不少文献，其医学知识被罗马人继承，成为西方医学的起源。罗马人（说拉丁语）在凯撒大帝（Julius Caesar)的率领下于公元前55年入侵不列颠群岛，统治直至公元410年。这样，拉丁语直接传入英语，希腊语又以拉丁语作媒介传入英语。例如：据传凯撒大帝经剖腹而降生，因而“剖腹产”的英文便是Caesarean section。 另一个重要时期便是文艺复兴时期，人们注重研究希腊语，用拉丁语演讲、写文章成为文人学者崇尚的时髦，这两种再次涌入英语。现代医学英语一方面经常把拉丁语、希腊语的词根作为组词因素，构成大量医学术语，例如：infra-red（红外线）有拉丁语前缀infra-和英语的词根red组成。oncology（肿瘤学）则由希腊语词根onc和英语后缀-ology组成。这种由借词和本族语结合而产生的新词叫做“杂交词”（the hybrid word)。另一方面用拉丁语和希腊语作词根的来源，构成大量复制形式（duplicate forms)的词汇，称作“竞争形势”（competing forms)，有三种类型：(1)词根相同，组合元音各异，例如：ov/i/duct（输卵管），ov/oplasm（卵浆）（2）同一词根两种形式，例如：hem/o/rrhage（出血），hemat/o/logy（血液学）；（3）两个词根意义相同，但词源各异，例如:womb(子宫），hysteralgia（子宫痛，希腊源），uteralgia（子宫痛，拉丁源） 。第三种类型产生了大量的同义词。Chapter 2 医学词语的构成、拼写、读音 There is hardly any other aspect of medicine that is so discouraging for the beginning student as medical terminology. The first impact of the long, unfamiliar words is decidedly depressing. A French essayist of the 16th century made the apt remark that “The language of medicine is an idiom foreign to the general speech and of discordant不一致的 sound.” The same criticism could very well apply to present-day medical language, which sounds just as “discordant” to the uninitiated（people who are not among those who have special knowledge or experience没有专门知识或经验的人）. The medical vocabulary is vast, and learning it may seem like learning the entire vocabulary of a foreign language. Moreover, like the jargon that arises in all changing fields, it is always expanding. Think of the terms that have been added to our vocabulary with the development of computers, such as software, megabyte兆字节, search engine, e-mail, chat room. The task seems overwhelming, but there are methods that can aid in learning and remembering words and can even help in making informed guesses regarding the meanings of unfamiliar words. Most medical terms can be divided into component partsroots, prefixes, and suffixesthat maintain the same meaning whenever they appear. By learning these meanings, you can analyze and remember many words Some familiarity with the meaning of the most frequently used roots , prefixes, and suffixes will clarify the whole field. With a little study, it will be found that the long and formidable sounding medical terms are a combination of words which describe parts of the body, a function, or a condition. The basic terms occur over and over again in various combinations. A knowledge of the meaning of the roots, prefixes, and suffixes enables the student to analyze the medical terms into component parts. This is of the greatest aid in learning to understand the vocabulary of medicine. Some names of diseases given by the ancients and still used today are, in many instances, simply descriptions of the outstanding symptoms; for example, hydro-phobiafear of waterfor rabies,简明英汉词典rabiesD.J.rebi:zK.K.rebizn.狂犬病;恐水症 because the inability to drink is an early, characteristic sign of the disease.Word Parts root The fundamental unit of each medical word is the root. This establishes the basic meaning of the word and is the part to which modifying prefixes and suffixes are added. prefix A prefix is a short word part added before a root to modify its meaning. Prefixes are indicated by a dash after the prefix, such as pre-. suffix A suffix is a short word part or series of parts added at the end of a root to modify its meaning. In many books suffixes are indicated by a dash before the suffix, such as -itis. The simple word learn can be used as a root to illustrate. If we add the suffix er to form learner, we have “one who learns.” If we add the prefix re- to form relearn, we have “to learn again.” Not all roots are complete words. In fact, most medical roots are derived from other languages and are meant to be used in combinations. The Greek word kardia, for example, meaning “heart,” gives us the root cardi. The Latin word pulmo, meaning “lung,” gives us the root pulm. In a few instances, both the Greek and Latin roots are used. We find both the Greek root nephr and the Latin root ren used in words pertaining to简明英汉词典pertain tov.属于,关于,附属,适合,相称 the kidney. Note that the same root may have different meanings in different fields of study. The root myel means “marrow” and may apply to either the bone marrow or the spinal cord. The root scler means “hard” but may also apply to the white of the eye巩膜. Cyst means “a filled sac or pouch” but also refers specifically to the urinary bladder. You will sometimes have to consider the context of a word before assigning its meaning. Compound words contain more than one root. The words eyeball, bedpan病人在床上用的便盆, frostbite冻伤, and wheelchair are examples. Some compound medical words are cardiovascular简明英汉词典cardiovascularD.J.,k:di:vskjlK.K.,krdiovskjladj.心血管的 (pertaining to the heart and blood vessels), urogenital (pertaining to the urinary and reproductive systems), and lymphocyte简明英汉词典lymphocyteD.J.lmf,satK.K.lmf,satn.(出现在血液、淋巴液中的)淋巴球,淋巴细胞 (a white blood cell found in the lymphatic system).Combining Forms When a suffix beginning with a consonant is added to a root, a vowel (usually an o) is inserted between the root and the suffix to aid in pronunciation. Thus, when the suffix -logy, meaning “study of,” is added to the root neur, meaning “nerve or nervous system,” a combining vowel is added: neur + o + logy = neurology (study of the nervous system) Roots shown with a combining vowel are called combining forms. A combining vowel usually is not used if the ending begins with a vowel. The root neur is combined with the suffix -itis, meaning “inflammation of,” in this way: neur + itis = neuritis (inflammation of a nerve) There are some exceptions to this rule, particularly when pronunciation or meaning is affected, but you will observe these as you work.（microorganism)Word Derivations As mentioned, most medical word parts come from Greek (G) and Latin (L). The original words and their meanings are included in this text only occasionally. They are interesting, however, and may aid in learning. For example, muscle comes from a Latin word that means “mouse” because the movement of a muscle under the skin was thought to resemble the scampering (running quickly) of a mouse. The coccyx, the tail end of the spine, is named for the cuckoo because it was thought to resemble the cuckoos bill (the horny part of the mouth of some birds). For those interested in the derivations of medical words, a good medical dictionary will provide this information. Abbreviations Like symbols, abbreviations can save time, but they can also cause confusion if they are not universally understood. Usage varies in different institutions, and the same abbreviation may have different meanings in different fields. An acronym is an abbreviation formed from the first letter of each word in a phrase. Some everyday acronyms are ASAP (as soon as possible) and ATM (automated teller machine). In computerese (computer language), RAM stands for “random access memory.” Acronyms have become popular for saving time and space in naming objects, organizations, and procedures. Only the most commonly used abbreviations are given when needed. An abbreviation dictionary is helpful.Words Ending In x When a word ending in x has a suffix added, the x is changed to a g or a c. For example, pharynx (咽throat) becomes pharyngeal, to mean “pertaining to the throat”; coccyx (尾骨 terminal portion of the vertebral column) becomes coccygeal, to mean “pertaining to the coccyx”; thorax (chest) becomes thoracotomy（胸廓切开术）to mean “an incision into the chest. suffix A suffix is a word ending that modifies a root. A suffix may indicate that the word is a noun or an adjective and often determines how the definition of the word will begin. For example, using the root myel/o, meaning “bone marrow,” the adjective ending -oid forms the word myeloid, which means “like or pertaining to bone marrow.” The ending oma produces myeloma, which is a tumor of the bone marrow. Adding another root, gen, which represents genesis or origin, and the adjective ending -ous forms the word myelogenous, meaning “originating in bone marrow.” The suffixes given in this chapter are general ones that are used throughout medical terminology. Additional suffixes will be presented in later chapters, as they pertain to disease states, medical treatment, or specific body systems.Noun SuffixesTABLE 2-1 Suffixes That Mean “Condition Of” *The ending -sis may appear with a combining vowel, as -osis, -iasis, -esis, or -asis. The first two of these denote an abnormal condition.Exercise 2-1Write the suffix that means “condition of” in each of the following words: 1. egotism (exaggerated self-importance) -ism E-go-tizm 2. dysentery (intestinal disorder) _ DIS-en-ter-e 3. insomnia (inability to sleep) _ in-SOM-ne-a 4. parasitism (infection with parasites or behaving as a parasite) _ PAR-a-sit-izm 5. thrombosis (having a blood clot in a vessel) _ throm-BO-sis 6. psoriasis (skin disease) _ so-RI-a-sis 7. analgesia (absence of pain) _ an-al-JE-ze-a 8. sclerosis (hardening) _ skle-RO-sis 9. atony (lack of muscle tone张力缺乏) _ AT-o-neAnswers: 1. -ism 2. -y 3. -ia 4. -ism 5. -sis, -osis 6. -sis, -asis 7. ia 8. -sis, -osis 9. -yTABLE 2-2 Suffixes for Medical SpecialtiesExercise 2-2Write the suffix in each of the following words that means “study of,” “medical specialty,” or “specialistin a field of study”: 1. dentist (one who treats the teeth and mouth) _ 2. neurology (the study of the nervous system) _ 3. pediatrics (treatment of children) _ 4. technologist (specialist in a technical field) _ 5. psychiatry (study and treatment of mental disorders) _Write a word for a specialist in each of the following fields: 6. anatomy (study of body structure) _ 7. pediatrics (care and treatment of children) _ 8. radiology (use of radiation in diagnosis and treatment) _ 9. orthodontics (correction of the teeth正牙学) _ or-tho-DON-tiksAnswers: 1. -ist 2. -logy 3. -iatrics 4. -ist 5. -iatry 6. anatomist 7. pediatrician 8. radiologist 9. orthodontistAdjective Suffixes The suffixes below are all adjective endings that mean “pertaining to” or “resembling” (Table 2-3). There are no rules for which ending to use for a given noun. Familiarity comes with practice. When necessary, tips on proper usage are given in the text. TABLE 2-3 Suffixes That Mean “Pertaining to” or “Resembling”Exercise 2-3 Identify the suffix meaning “pertaining to” or “resembling” in each of the following words: 1. salivary (pertaining to saliva) -ary SAL-i-var-e 2. pelvic (pertaining to the pelvis) PEL-vik 3. neurotic (pertaining to neurosis) nu-ROT-ik 4. fibrous (pertaining to fibers) FI-brus 5. epilep