Rhetoric_Devices修辞格的使用.doc

Rhetoric Devices:(修辞) (Stylistic Devices, Figures of Speech)1.Alliteration:（头韵）( repetition of initial consonant sound :The initial consonant sound is usually repeated in two neighbouring words (sometimes also in words that are not next to each other). Alliteration draws attention to the phrase and is often used for emphasis. Examples:1）. for the greater good of 2）. safety and security. 3）. share a continent but not a countryRepetition of initial consonant sounds means that only the sound must be the same, not the consonants themselves. Examples:1）. killer command .2）. fantastic philosophy .3） A neat knot need not be re-knotted. If neighbouring words start with the same consonant but have a different initial sound, the words are not alliterated. Examples:1）. a Canadian child. 2）. honoured and humbled (the h in honoured is silent) 2. Allusion:(引喻) indirect reference to a person, event or piece of literature Allusion is used to explain or clarify a complex problem. Note that allusion works best if you keep it short and refer to something the reader / audience is familiar with, e.g.: famous people ; history ; (Greek) mythology ; literature ; the bible .If the audience is familiar with the event or person, they will also know background and context. Thus, just a few words are enough to create a certain picture (or scene) in the readers minds. The advantages are as follows:1）. We dont need lengthy explanations to clarify the problem. 2）. The reader becomes active by reflecting on the analogy. 3）. The message will stick in the readers mind. Examples:1）. The software included a Trojan Horse. (allusion on the Trojan horse from Greek mythology) 2）. Plan ahead. It was not raining when Noah built the Ark. (Richard Cushing) (allusion on the biblical Ark of Noah) Many allusions on historic events, mythology or the bible have become famous idioms. Examples:1）. to meet ones Waterloo (allusion on Napoleons defeat in the Battle of Waterloo) 2）. to wash ones hands of it. (allusion on Pontius Pilatus, who sentenced Jesus to death, but washed his hands afterwards to demonstrate that he was not to blame for it.) 3）. to be as old as Methusalem (allusion on Josephs grandfather, who was 969 years old according to the Old Testament) 4）. to guard sth with Arguss eyes (allusion on the giant Argus from Greek mythology, who watched over Zeus lover Io.) 3. Anaphora:（首语重复法） successive clauses or sentences start with the same word(s) The same word or phrase is used to begin successive clauses or sentences. Thus, the readers / listeners attention is drawn directly to the message of the sentence.Example: 1） Every child must be taught these principles. Every citizen must uphold them. And every immigrant, by embracing these ideals, makes our country more, not less, American. 2）If we had no winter, the spring would not be so pleasant; if we did not sometimes taste of adversity, prosperity would not be so welcome. (Anne Bradstreet) 3）The beginning of wisdom is silence. The second step is listening. (unknown) A man without ambition is dead. A man with ambition but no love is dead. A man with ambition and love for his blessings here on earth is ever so alive. (Pearl Bailey) Anaphora is often used in conjunction with parallelism or climax.4.Antithesis : （对照法）contrasting relationship between two ideas Antithesis emphasises the contrast between two ideas. The structure of the phrases / clauses is usually similar in order to draw the readers / listeners attention directly to the contrast. Examples:1）Thats one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind. (Neil Armstrong) To err is human; to forgive, divine. (Pope) 2）It is easier for a father to have children than for children to have a real father. (Pope) 5. Transferred epithet: (转类形容词) an adjective or adjective phrase appropriately qualifying a subject (noun) by naming a key or important characteristic of the subject, as in laughing happiness, sneering contempt, untroubled sleep, peaceful dawn, and lifegiving water. Sometimes a metaphorical epithet will be good to use, as in lazy road, tired landscape, smirking billboards, anxious apple. Aptness and brilliant effectiveness are the key considerations in choosing epithets. Be fresh, seek striking images, pay attention to connotative value. A transferred epithet is an adjective modifying a noun which it does not normally modify, but which makes figurative sense: 1. At length I heard a ragged noise and mirth of thieves and murderers . . . . -George Herbert 2. In an age of pressurized happiness, we sometimes grow insensitive to subtle joys. 6. Hyperbole: （夸张法）deliberate exaggeration Used sparingly, hyperbole effectively draws the attention to a message that you want to emphasize. Example:1）I was so hungry, I could eat an elephant. 2）I have told you a thousand times. 7. Hypophora （自问自答）question raised and answered by the author / speaker The author / speaker raises a question and also gives an answer to the question. Hypophora is used to get the audiences attention and make them curious. Often the question is raised at the beginning of a paragraph and answered in the course of that paragraph. Hypophora can also be used, however, to introduce a new area of discussion. Example:1）Why is it better to love than be loved? It is surer. (Sarah Guitry) 2）How many countries have actually hit the targets set at Rio, or in Kyoto in 1998, for cutting greenhouse-gas emissions? Precious few8. Litotes：（反语法）form of understatement Litotes is a form of understatement which uses the denied opposite of a word to weaken or soften a message. Examples:1）Thats not bad. (instead of: Thats good/great.) 2）Boats arent easy to find in the dark. （ instead of: Boats are hard/difficult to find in the dark.) 9. Metaphor:(隐喻，暗喻) figurative expression Metaphor compares two different things in a figurative sense. Unlike in a simile (A is like B.), “like” is not used in metaphor (A is B.). Example:1. Truths are first clouds, then rain, then harvest and food. (Henry Ward Beecher) 2. Through much of the last century, Americas faith in freedom and democracy was a rock in a raging sea. Now it is a seed upon the wind, taking root in many nations10. Metonymy: (转喻) figurative expression, closely associated with the subject Metonymy (unlike metaphor) uses figurative expressions that are closely associated with the subject in terms of place, time or background. The figurative expression is not a physical part of the subject, however (see synecdoche). Examples:1. The White House declared (White House = US government / President) 2. The land belongs to the crown. (crown = king / queen / royal family / monarchy) 3. Empty pockets never held anyone back. Only empty heads and empty hearts can do that. (Norman Vincent Peale) (empty pockets = poverty; empty heads = ignorance / dullness / density; empty hearts = unkindness / coldness) 4. The kettle boils. ( The water in the kettle boils)11. Onomatopoeia: (拟声法)word imitating a sound The pronounciation of the word imitates a sound. Onomatopoeia is used because its often difficult to describe sounds. Furthermore, a story becomes more lively and interesting by the use of onomatopoeia. Examples:1. The lion roared. 2. The steaks sizzled in the pan. 3. The bomb went off with a bang. 12. Parallelism: (并行体，对句法，平行句) parallel sentence structure Successive clauses or sentences are similarly structured. This similarity makes it easier for the reader / listener to concentrate on the message. Example:1. We are bound by ideals that move us beyond our backgrounds, lift us above our interest, and teach us what it means to be citizens.2. The mediocre teacher tells. The good teacher explains. The superior teacher demonstrates. The great teacher inspires. (William A. Ward) 3. The mistakes of the fool are known to the world, but not to himself. The mistakes of the wise man are known to himself, but not to the world. (Charles Caleb Colton) 4. Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I may remember. Involve me and I will learn. (Benjamin Franklin) Note: When writing, parallelism is a useful device for instructions. Due to the parallel structure, the reader can concentrate on the message and will immediately know what to do (see examples below).Example 1 (no parallelism):Open the book first. You must read the text now. There are pictures in the bookLook at them. The questions must be answered. Example 2 (parallelism):Open the book. Read the text. Look at the pictures. Answer the questions. You surely agree that the second instruction is easier to follow (and to remember) than the first one. The change of structure in the first example is confusing and distracts the reader from the actual message. It might be okay with simple messages like the ones we used here. But following more complex instructions is really hard if they are not in parallel structure.13. Parenthesis: (插入语) additional information The normal progression of a sentence is interrupted by extra information or explanations enclosed in commas, brackets or dashes. The extra information can be a single word, a phrase or even a sentence. Examples:1. We ( myself, wife Lorraine and daughters Caroline and Joanna) boarded our boat Lynn, a Duchess class vessel barely a year old, at Black Prince Holidays Chirk boatyard.2. The boats have remarkably few controls and we were given a thorough briefing about driving oursalong with advice on mooring, lock operation and safety considerationsby Pauline, who even set off with us for a few minutes to ensure we were confident.Depending on the importance attached to it, additional information can be enclosed in bracket, commas or dashed. Brackets not important Connor (Amys boyfriend) bought the tickets.Commas neutralConnor, Amys boyfriend, bought the tickets.Dashes- emphasizedConnorAmys boyfriend bought the tickets 14. Personification: （拟人）attribution of human characteristics to animals, inanimate objects or abstractions Animals, inanimate objects or abstractions are represented as having human characteristics ( behavior, feelings, character etc.). Personification can make a narration more interesting and lively. Examples:1. Why these two countries would remain at each others throat for so long.2. I closed the door, and my stubborn car refused to open it again. 3. The flowers nodded their heads as if to greet us. 4. The frogs began their concert. 15. Repetition: (重复法) repeating words or phrases Words or phrases are repeated throughout the text to emphasize certain facts or ideas. Examples:1. Down, down, down. Would the fall never come to an end! I wonder how many miles Ive fallen by this time? she said aloud. Down, down, down. There was nothing else to do, so Alice soon began talking again. 2. America, at its best, matches a commitment to principle with a concern for civility. A civil society demands from each of us good will and respect, fair dealing and forgiveness. America, at its best, is also courageous. Our national courage America, at its best, is compassionate. In the quiet of American conscience, we know that deep, persistent poverty is unworthy of our nations promise. 16. Rhetorical Question: (修辞问句) question without a direct answer The author / speaker raises a question, but doesnt answer it directly as he/she sees the answer (usually Yes or No) as obvious. Rhetorical questions are used to provoke, emphasize or argue. Examples:1. When public money brings windfalls to a few, why should the state not take a share?2. But was the best way to win them over to threaten to ignore them altogether? Like so many things this week, the administrations diplomacy needs a smoother touch. (Note that the sentence following the question is not an answer to it.) 17. Simile: (明喻) direct comparison Two things are compared directly by using like (A is like B.).Other possibilities are for example:A is (not) like B A is more/less than B A is as as B A is similar to B A is , so is B A does , so does B Examples:1. concrete box-style buildings are spreading like inkblots 2. The rabbit-hole went straight on like a tunnel 3. Personality is to a man what perfume is to a flower. (Charles Schwab) 4. My friend is as good as gold. 18. Synecdoche: (提喻法) using a part instead of the whole or vice versa Synechdoche is some kind of generalization or specification that uses a part,a member or a characteristic of what is meant. The following possibilities are common: Part used instead of the whole: Example:1. Turning our long boat round on the last morning required all hands on deck (hands = people) Whole used instead of a part: Example:1. Troops halt the drivers (troops = soldiers) Specific term used instead of a general one: Example:1. A major lesson Americans need to learn is that life consists of more than cars and television sets. Two specific items substituted for the concept of material wealth 2. Give us this day our daily bread. -Matt. 6:11 3. If you still do not feel well, youd better call up a sawbones and have him examine you. 19. Understatement: (低调陈述) weaken or soften a statement A statement is deliberately weakened to sound ironical or softened to sound more polite.Note that understatement is a common feature of the English language (especially British English) used in everyday-life situations. Examples:1. I know a little about running a company. (a successful businessman might modestly say.) 2. I think we have slightly different opinions on this topic. (instead of: I dont agree with you at all.) 20) Analogy: (类比）It is also a form of comparison, but unlike simile or metaphor which usually uses comparison on one point of resemblance, analogy draws a parallel between two unlike things that have several common qualities or points of resemblance.21) Euphemism: (委婉） It is the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive(无冒犯) expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant. For instance, we refer to die as pass away.22) Antonomasia (换喻）It has also to do with substitution. It is not often mentioned now, though it is still in frequent use. For example, Solomon for a wise man. Daniel for a wise and fair judge. Judas for a traitor.23) Pun: (双关语） It is a play on words, or rather a play on the form and meaning of words. For instance, a cannon-ball took off his legs, so he laid down his arms. (Here arms has two meanings: a persons body; weapons carried by a soldier.)24) Syllepsis: (一语双叙） It has two connotations. In the first case, it is a figure by which a word, or a particular form or inflection of a word, refers to two or more words in the same sentence, while properly applying to or agreeing with only on of them in grammar or syntax(句法). For example, He addressed you and me, and desired us to follow him. (Here us is used to refer to you and me.) In the second case, it a word may refer to two or more words in the same sentence. For example, while he was fighting , and losing limb and mind, and dying, others stayed behind to pursue education and career. (Here to losing ones limbs in literal; to lose ones mind is figurative, and means to go mad.)25) Zeugma: (轭式搭配） It is a single word which is made to modify or to govern two or more words in the same sentence, wither properly applying in sense to only one of them, or applying to them in different senses. For example, The sun shall not burn you by day, nor the moon by night. (Here noon is not strong enough to burn)26) Irony: (反语） It is a figure of speech that achieves emphasis by saying the opposite of what is meant, the intended meaning of the words being the opposite of their usual sense. For instance, we are lucky, what you said makes me feel real good.27) Sarcasm: (讽刺） It Sarcasm is a strong form of irony. It attacks in a taunting and bitter manner, and its aim is to disparage, ridicule and wound the feelings of the subject attacked. For example, laws are like cobwebs, which may catch small flies, but let wasps break through.28) Paradox: (似非而是的隽语） It is a figure of speech consisting of a statement or proposition which on the face of it seems self-contradictory, absurd or contrary to established fact or practice, but which on further thinking and study may prove to be true, well-founded, and even to contain a succinct point. For example more haste, less speed.29) Oxymoron: (矛盾修饰） It is a compressed paradox, formed by the conjoining(结合) of two contrasting, contradictory or incongruous(不协调) terms as in bitter-sweet memories, orderly chaos(混乱) and proud humility(侮辱).30) Epigram: (警句） It states a simple truth pithily(有利地) and pungently(强烈地). It is usually terse and arouses interest and surprise by its deep insight into certain aspects of human behavior or feeling. For instance, Few, save the poor, feel for the poor.31) Climax: (渐进） It is derived from the Greek word for ladder and implies the progression of thought at a uniform or almost uniform rate of significance or intensity, like the steps of a ladder ascending evenly. For example, I came, I saw, I conquered.32) Anti-climax or bathos: (突降）It is the opposite of Climax. It involves stating ones thoughts in a descending order of significance or intensity, from strong to weak, from weighty to light or frivolous. For instance, But thousands die, without or this or that, die, and endow(赋予) a college, or a cat.33) Apostrophe： (顿呼） In this figure of speech, a thing, place, idea or person (dead or absent) is addressed as if present, listening and understanding what is being said. For instance, England! awake! awake! awake!34).Oxymoron： （矛盾修饰法）is a paradox reduced to two words, usually in an adjective-noun