Chapter-1--Prototypes-and-Categories认知语言学(1).ppt

Chapter1PrototypesandCategories PhilosophicalBackground Experientialism 体验主义 Allthecategories concepts deductionsandmentalabilitiesarebasedontheembodiedexperiencesProcedure Reality cognition languageTheaimofcognitivelinguistics Toexplaintheiconicitybehindlinguisticsignsandthecognitivemechanism MainContents PhilosophicalbackgroundCategorizationTheclassicaltheoryWittgenstein sstudyoncategorizationTheprototypetheoryEmpiricalresearchesandInspirationsBerlin Kay sresearchonfocalcolorsandinspirationsEleanorRosch sresearch anextendedone andinspirationsInfluencingfactorsontheprototypecategoryTheapplicationoftheprototypetheory Categorization Thecloserelationbetweenlanguagestudyandcategorystudy Iflinguisticscanbesaidtobeanyonethingitisthestudyofcategories Labov 1973 342 Categorizationandcategory Thementalprocessofclassificationiscommonlycalledcategorization anditsproductsarethecognitivecategories Ungerer Schmid 2001 2 2008 8 Thereisnothingmorebasicthancategorizationtoourthought perception actionandspeech Lakoff 1987 5 Categorization theworldismadeupofaninfinitevarietyofobjectswithdifferentsubstances shapesandcolors Wedon tperceivesuchvarietywithoutorder i e weassumethereareperceivedseparatingpointsandboundariesaswellasperceivedsimilaritiesbetweendifferententities Thus itisnecessarytoclassifyentities togrouptheentitieswhichshareperceivedsimilaritiestogetheranddividethosedifferententities Categorization CategoriesKindsofthings chairs nation illnesses emotionsKindsofmotoractivities writing hammering ironing kicking etc AccordingtotheAustralianaboriginallanguageDyirbal thereisacategory balan whichincludeswomen fire anddangerousthings Lakoff 1987 5 Anunderstandingofhowwecategorizeiscentraltoanyunderstandingofhowwethinkandhowwefunction andthereforecentraltoanunderstandingofwhatmakesushuman Lakoff 1987 6 Categorization MostcategorizationisautomaticandunconsciousInmovingabouttheworld weautomaticallycategorizepeople animals andphysicalobjects bothnaturalandman made Lakoff 1987 6 Theoriesoncategorization TheClassicalTheoryWittgenstein stheoryThePrototypeTheory TheClassicalTheory The classicaltheory ofcategorizationwastheprevalentmodelsincethetimeofAristotleandholdsthatconceptualandlinguisticcategorieshavedefinitionalstructure Evans Green 2006 251 Representative AristotleMetaphysics 形而上学 E g Suppose man hasthemeaning two footedanimal By havingameaning Imeanthis If man is two footedanimal thenifanythingisaman its being two footed willbewhatits being a man is Therefore ifitistruetosayofanythingthatitisaman itfollowsnecessarilythatitisatwo footedanimal forthiswasthemeaningweassignedto man Aristotle1999 1960 69 71 FourFeaturesfortheClassicalTheory Categoriesaredefinedintermsofaconjunctionofnecessaryandsufficientfeatures Featuresarebinary CategorieshaveclearboundariesAllmembersofacategoryhaveequalstatus AQuestion Doyouagreewiththeclassicaltheoryofcategorization Wittgenstein sStudyoncategorization FamilyResemblance Considerforexampletheproceedingsthatwecall games Imeanboard games card games ball games Olympicgames andsoon Whatiscommontothemall Don tsay Theremustbesomethingcommon ortheywouldnotbecalled games butlookandseewhetherthereisanythingcommontoall Forifyoulookatthemyouwillnotseesomethingthatiscommontoall butsimilarities relationships andawholeseriesofthematthat Torepeat don tthink butlook Forexampleatboard games withtheirmultifariousrelationships Nowpasstocard games hereyoufindmanycorrespondenceswiththefirstgroup butmanycommonfeaturesdropout andothersappear Whenwepassnexttoball games muchthatiscommonisretained butmuchislost Aretheyall amusing Comparechesswithnoughtsandcrosses Oristherealwayswinningandlosing orcompetitionbetweenplayers Thinkofpatience Inball gamesthereiswinningandlosing butwhenachildthrowshisballatthewallandcatchesitagain thisfeaturehasdisappeared Lookatthepartsplayedbyskillandluck andatthedifferencebetweenskillinchessandskillintennis Thinknowofgameslikering a ring aroses hereistheelementofamusement buthowmanyothercharacteristicfeatureshavedisappeared Andwecangothroughthemany manyothergroupsofgamesinthesameway weseehowsimilaritiescropupanddisappear Andtheresultofthisexaminationis weseeacomplicatednetworkofsimilaritiesoverlappingandcriss crossing sometimesoverallsimilarities sometimessimilaritiesofdetail Icanthinkofnobetterexpressiontocharacterizethesesimilaritiesthan familyresemblance forthevariousresemblancesbetweenmembersofafamily build features colourofeyes gait temperament etc etc overlapandcriss crossinthesameway AndIshallsay games formafamily Wittgenstein2001 1953 27 28 ThePrototypetheory Seriesofstudymadebyanthropologistsandpsychologistssince1960s seethenextpart ThedefinitionofprototypePrototype as exemplarviewPrototype as subcategoryapproachAttributesPrototype as abstractionapproach Thebasiccontentsoftheprototypetheory Thecategorymembersarecollectedbyfamilyresemblance BoundaryfuzzinessthelargestnumberofattributionsPrototyicality unequalPolycentricstructure EmpiricalresearchesandInspirations Berlin Kay sresearchonfocalcolorsTwobasicgeneralrulesforcolorstudyThereexistsasmallsetofperceptuallandmarks thatwecannowidentifywiththeHeringprimarycolors black white red yellow green blue whichindividuallyorincombinationformthebasisofthedenotationofmostofthemajorcolortermsofmostofthelanguagesofworld Languagesarefrequentlyobservedtogainbasiccolortermsinapartiallyfixedorder Languagesareinfrequentlyorneverobservedtolosebasiccolorterms 摘自李福印 2008 91 EmpiricalresearchesandInspirations EleanorRosch sexperienceonthepsychologicalbackgroundoffocalcolorsandtheextendedresearchesRosch sfindingsonfocalcolors P9 Prototypical