语言学教程第二章ppt课件

.,Speechsounds,Unit2,.,Speechandwritingaretwomediaforlanguage.Speechispriortowriting,sospeechismorebasicthanwriting.Speechsounds:areproducedonlybyhumans,meaningfulinhumancommunicationandwithwhichlinguistsareconcerned.,.,.,Phoneticsanditsbranches,Phonetics:Phoneticsisthesciencewhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofhumansound-making,especiallythosesoundsusedinspeechandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription(标音).Phoneticsstudieshowspeechsoundsareproduced,transmitted,andperceived.,.,ArticulatoryPhonetics(发音语音学)isthestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds.AcousticPhonetics(声学语音学)isthestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeech.AuditoryPhonetics(听觉语音学)isconcernedwiththeperceptionofspeechsounds.,.,Howspeechsoundsaremade,SpeechorgansSpeechorgans,alsoknownasvocalorgans(发音器官).Thearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingarecontainedinthreeimportantareas:(1)thepharyngealcavity(咽腔)thethroat(2)theoralcavity(口腔)themouth(3)thenasalcavity(鼻腔)thenose.,.,.,.,Positionofthevocalfolds:voiceless,.,Voiceless,Voiceless:whenthevocalfolds(声带)areapart,theaircanpassthrougheasilyandthesoundproducedissaidtobevoiceless.,.,Positionofthevocalfolds:voicing(initial(themannersofarticulation)b.whereinthevocaltractthereisapproximation,narrowing,ortheobstructionofair.(theplacesofarticulation),.,Themannerofarticulationreferstowaysinwhicharticulationcanbeaccomplished:thearticulatorsmaycloseofftheoraltractforaninstantorarelativelylongperiod;theymaynarrowthespaceconsiderably;ortheymaysimplymodifytheshapeofthetractbyapproachingeachother.,.,Stop(orPlosive)塞音（爆破音）Nasal(nasalstop)鼻音（鼻塞音）Fricative擦音,.,Thisisanarticulationinwhichonearticulatorisclosetoanother,butwithoutthevocaltractbeingnarrowedtosuchanextentthataturbulentairstreamisproduced.Thegapbetweenthearticulatorsisthereforelargerthanforafricativeandnoturbulence(friction)isgenerated.Inenglish,thisclassofsoundsinclude(oftenrepresentedasforeaseofprinting),(Median)Approximant(中)通音,.,Theobstructionoftheairstreamisatapointalongthecenteroftheoraltract,withincompleteclosurebetweenoneorbothsidesofthetongueandtheroofofthemouth.Asthelateralpassageformsastrictureofopenapproximation,itiscalled“lateral”.Iffrictionisproduced,itisa“lateralfricative”.Ifnonoiseoffrictionisproduced,itisa“lateralapproximant”.istheonlyonelateralinEnglish.,Lateral(Approximant)边(通)音,.,Trill（颤音）Atrill(sometimescalledROLL)isproducedwhenanarticulatorissetvibratingbytheairstream.Amajortrillsoundis,asinredandryeinsomeformsofScottishEnglish.TaporFlap(闪音、触音)Therewasatimewhentapandflapwereconsideredtobeidenticalcategoriesbutmorerecentlyleadingphoneticiansgenerallyagreethatitisnecessarytodistinguishbetweenthetwo.,.,Whenthetonguemakesasingletapagainstthealveolarridgetoproduceonlyonevibration,thesoundiscalledatapAnexampleofthetapistheAmericansubstitutionforinwordssuchascityandletterTheflapispronouncedwiththetipofthetonguecurledupandbackinaretroflexgestureandthenstrikingtheroofofthemouthinthepost-alveolarregionasitreturnstoitspositionbehindthelowerfrontteeth.InsomeformsofAmericanEnglish,theflapoccursinwordslikedirtyandsortingafterr-coloredvowelsinastressedsyllable.,.,Affricatesinvolvemorethanoneofthesemannersofarticulationinthattheyconsistofastopfollowedimmediatelyafterwardsbyafricativeatthesameplaceofarticulation.InEnglish,theofchurchandtheofjetarebothaffricates.ThelegitimatepositionofasaffricateshasbeenejectedfromEnglishbecausethefirsttwoareusedonlyforsuffixesandforeignwords,whilethelattertwoareoftenrealizedastwosoundsinmanypeoplesspeech.InChinese,however,bothandarelegitimateaffricatesastheyappearinwordslike错and做.,Affricate（塞擦音）,.,Theplaceofarticulationreferstothepointwhereaconsonantismade.Practicallyconsonantsmaybeproducedatanyplacebetweenthelipsandthevocalfolds.ElevenplacesofarticulationaredistinguishedontheIPAchart:,.,Bilabial双唇音,Bilabialconsonantsaremadewiththetwolips.InEnglish,bilabialsoundsincludeasinpet,betandmet.asinweandwet,involvesanapproximationofthetwolipsbutisproducedslightlydifferently:thetonguebodyisraisedtowardsthevelumatthesametimeand,forthisreason,intheIPAchartitistreatedasalabial-velarapproximant(双唇软腭通音),listedinthesectionof“othersymbols”,outsidethemainconsonantchart.,.,Labiodental唇齿音,Thesearemadewiththelowerlipandtheupperfrontteeth.asinfireandvia,areproducedbyraisingthelowerlipuntilitnearlytouchestheupperfrontteeth.,.,Dental齿音,Dentalsoundsaremadebythetonguetiporblade(dependingontheaccentorlanguage)andtheupperfrontteeth.Onlyfricativesarefoundtobestrictlydental.Somespeakershavethetipofthetongueprotrudingbetweentheupperandlowerfrontteethwhereasothershaveitclosebehindtheupperfrontteeth.,.,Alveolar齿龈音Alveolarsaremadewiththetonguetiporbladeandthealveolarridge.SoundsproducedatthisplaceincludeforEnglish,whichisalargegroupofsounds.Postalveolar后齿龈音Thesearemadewiththetonguetipandthebackofthealveolarridge.Suchsoundsincludeasinshipandgenre.Insomesystems,thisplaceisalsoknownasPALATO-ALVEOLAR.,.,Retroflex卷舌音Retroflexsoundsaremadewiththetonguetiporbladecurledback(RETROFLEXED)sothattheundersideofthetonguetiporbladeformsastricturewiththebackofthealveolarridgeorthehardpalate.Inmandarin,theretroflexfricativeistypicalasin书bookand事儿thing,.,Palatal(硬)腭音Palatalsoundsaremadewiththefrontofthetongueandthehardpalate.TheonlyEnglishsoundmadehereisasinyesandyet,butmanyspeakersdouseapalatalfricative(腭擦音)forthe“h”inheorHugh.,.,Velarsaremadewiththebackofthetongueandthesoftpalate.Inmakingsuchsounds,thebackofthetongueisraisedtotouchthevelum.ExamplesinEnglisharevelarstops(软腭塞音)11112asincatandget,andvelarnasal(软腭鼻音)asinsing.ThepronunciationoftheScotswordlochcontainsavelarfricative(软腭擦音)afterthevowel.TheinitialconsonantintheChineseword和isalsothevelarfricative,Velar软腭音,.,Uvular小舌音,Uvularsaremadewiththebackofthetongueandtheuvula,theshortprojectionofsofttissueandmuscleattheposteriorendofthevelum.InFrench,theletter“r”ispronouncedastheuvularfricative,asinvotreyour.,.,Pharyngeal咽音,Pharyngealsoundsaremadewiththerootofthetongueandthewallsofthepharynx.Therearefewsoundsatthisplacebecauseofphysiologicaldifficulty.Arabicisalanguagewhichcontainspharyngealfricatives,.,Glottalsoundsaremadewiththetwopiecesofvocalfoldspushedtowardseachother.Theinhatandholdisoftendescribedasaglottalfricative,althoughsomepeopleholditmaybemorerealistictointerpretitasatypeofvowel.Theglottalstopisformedbybringingtogetherthevocalfolds,buildinguppressurebehindthemasforastopandthenreleasingthevocalfolds.Becauseofsuchagesture,itismoreofthelackofsoundthanasound.AglottalstopisoftenperceivedinwordslikefatezsandpackandmanyspeakersofEnglishhaveitforthe“t”inwordslikebuttonaUm,beatenandfatten,Glottal喉音/声门音,.,Vowels,Criteriaofvoweldescriptionthepartofthetonguethatisraisedfront,center,backtheextenttowhichthetonguerisesinthedirectionofthepalatehigh,mid(mid-high,mid-low),lowthekindofopeningmadeatthelipsrounded,unroundedthepositionofthesoftpalatenasalized,oral,.,CardinalVowels,CardinalVowels,asexhibitedbythevoweldiagramintheIPAchart,areasetofvowelqualitiesarbitrarilydefined,fixedandunchanging,intendedtoprovideaframeofreferenceforthedescriptionoftheactualvowelsofexistinglanguages.,.,high,mid-high,mid-low,low,unrounded,unrounded,unrounded,unrounded,unrounded,rounded,rounded,rounded,.,.,Byconvention,theeightprimarycardinalvowelsarenumberedfromonetoeightasfollows:ThefirstfiveoftheseareunroundedvowelswhiletheCV6,CV7andCV8areroundedones.,.,Vowelglides(元音音渡),Languagesalsofrequentlymakeuseofadistinctionbetweenvowelswherethequalityremainsconstantthroughoutthearticulationandthosewherethereisanaudiblechangeofquality.Theformerareknownaspureormonophthongvowelsandthelatter,vowelglides.,.,Ifasinglemovementofthetongueisinvolved,theglidesarecalleddiphthongs.DiphthongalglidesinEnglishcanbeheardinsuchwordsasway,tide,how,toy,andtoe,Diphthong(双元音),.,Adoublemovementproducesatriphthong,whichisaglidefromonevoweltoanotherandthentoathird,allproducedrapidlyandwithoutinterruption.TheyarereallydiphthongsfollowedbytheschwafoundinEnglishwordslikewireandtower,Triphthong(三重元音),.,ThesoundsofEnglish,ReceivedPronunciation(RP)标音GeneralAmerican(GA)普通美语Englishconsonants,.,.,TheconsonantsofEnglishcanbedescribedinthefollowingmanner:voicelessbilabialstop双唇清塞音voicedbilabialstop双唇浊塞音voicelessalveolarfricative齿龈清擦音voicedalveolarfricative齿龈浊擦音,.,Englishvowels,.,.,ThedescriptionofEnglishvowelsneedstofulfillfourbasicrequirements:theheightoftongueraising(high,mid,low);thepositionofthehighestpartofthetongue(front,central,back);thelengthortensenessofthevowel(tensevs.laxorlongvs.short),andlip-rounding(roundedvs.unrounded).,.,WecannowdescribetheEnglishvowelsinthisway:highfronttenseunroundedvowelhighbacklaxroundedvowelmidcentrallaxunroundedvowellowbacklaxroundedvowel,.,Fromphoneticstophonology,Speechisacontinuousprocess,sothevocalorgansdonotmovefromonesoundsegmenttothenextinaseriesofseparatesteps.Rather,soundscontinuallyshowtheinfluenceoftheirneighbors.Forexample,map,lamb.,.,3.1Coarticulation(协同发音),Whensuchsimultaneousoroverlappingarticulationsareinvolved,wecalltheprocesscoarticulation.,.,Ifthesoundbecomesmorelikethefollowingsound,asinthecaseoflamb,itisknownasanticipatorycoarticulation.Ifthesoundshowstheinfluenceoftheprecedingsound,itisperseverativecoarticulation,asisthecaseofmap.,.,Thefactthatthevowelinlambhassomequalityofthefollowingnasalisaphenomenonwecallnasalization.Toindicatethatavowelhasbeennasalized,weaddadiacritictothetopofthesymbolas,.,.,.,.,Phonemes,Phonologyisnotspecificallyconcernedwiththephysicalpropertiesofthespeechproductionsystem.Phoneticiansareconcernedwithhowsoundsdifferinthewaytheyarepronouncedwhilephonologistsareinterestedinthepatterningofsuchsoundsandtherulesthatunderliesuchvariations.,.,Crystal:Phonologicalanalysisreliesontheprinciplethatcertainsoundscausechangesinthemeaningofawordorphrase,whereasothersoundsdonot.MinimalpairstestTakeaword,replaceonesoundbyanother,andseewhetheradifferentmeaningresults.Itcanbeusedtofindoutwhichsoundsubstitutionscausedifferencesofmeaning.Itleadstotheidentificationofphonemes.,.,.,Thewordphonemesimplyreferstoaunitofexplicitsoundcontrast:theexistenceofaminimalpairautomaticallygrantsphonemicstatustothesoundsresponsibleforthecontrasts.Byselectingonetypeofsoundinsteadofanotherwecandistinguishonewordfromanother.,.,.,Byconvention,phonemictranscriptionsareplacedbetweenslantlines(/)whilephonetictranscriptionsareplacedbetweensquarebrackets().Inphoneticterms,phonemictranscriptions(音位标音)representthebroadtranscriptions.,.,Allophones(音位变体),aretwodifferentphonesandarevariantsofthephonemeSuchvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophonesofthesamephoneme.Inthiscasetheallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution(互补分布)becausetheyneveroccurinthesamecontext:,.,Thisphenomenonofvariationinthepronunciationofphonemesindifferentpositionsiscalledallophonyorallophonicvariation(音位变体).,.,Velarization:clearlanddarklThinkabouttellandtelling!Phoneticsimilarity:theallophonesofaphonememustbearsomephoneticresemblance.Freevariantsandfreevariation,.,Phone，phonemeandallophone,Phone(音素):phoneticunitorsegment,e.g.pin“spit”pin“pit”Phoneme(音位):aphonologicalunit,itisanabstractunit,putinslashes,/p/.Allophone(音位变体):differentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthephoneme,Clearlanddarkaretheallophonesofthephoneme/l/.pandparetheallophonesofthephoneme/p/.,.,Freevariation,SometimesaphonememayalsohaveFREEVARIANTS.Forexample,thefinalconsonantofcupmaynotbereleasedbysomespeakerssothereisnoaudiblesoundattheendofthisword.Inthiscase,itisthesamewordpronouncedintwodifferentways:jUoandjUo,withthe14diacritic“”indicating“noaudiblerelease”inIPAsymbols,i.e.thesoundisnotactuallyheard.Thedifferencemaybecausedbydialectorpersonalhabit,insteadofbyanydistributionrule.SuchaphenomenoniscalledFREEVARIATION.Freevariationisoftenfoundinregionaldifferences.Forexample,mostAmericanspronouncethewordeitherash9C?_whereasmostBritishpeoplesayHC?.IndividualdifferencesmayalsodeterminetheuseofcHqDjRmorcHqDjRmfortheworddirection.,.,Phonologicalprocesses,phonologicalrulesanddistinctivefeatures,Assimilation（同化）,.,.,Nasalization,dentalization,andvelarizationareallinstancesofassimilation,aprocessbywhichonesoundtakesonsomeorallthecharacteristicsofaneighboringsound.Ifafollowingsoundisinfluencingaprecedingsound,wecallitregressiveassimilation(逆同化);theconverseprocess,inwhichaprecedingsoundisinfluencingafollowingsound,isknownasprogressiveassimilation(顺同化).,.,Assimilationcanoccuracrosssyllableorworldboundaries:,.,EnglishFricativeDevoicing(清音化),.,.,AssimilationinMandarin,好啊haowa海啊haiya看啊kanna唱啊chang跳啊tiaowa,.,Epenthesis(增音）,ruleordering(规则顺序)andtheElsewhereCondition,ahotel,aboy,ause,awagon,abigman,ayellowrug,awhitehouseanapple,anhonor,anorangecurtain,anoldladyEpenthesis(Insertion)Rule:,.,PluralsinEnglish,.,.,.,a.Theappearsaftervoicelesssounds.b.Theappearsaftervoicedsounds.c.Theappearsaftersibilants.,.,Ruleordering,.,TheElsewhereConditionThemorespecificruleappliesfirst.其余位置条件优先应用适用范围较小的规则。,.,Distinctivefeatures,TheideaofDistinctiveFeatureswasfirstdevelopedbyRomanJacobson(1896-1982)inthe1940sasameansofworkingoutasetofphonologicalcontrastsoroppositionstocaptureparticularaspectsoflanguagesounds.Sincethenseveralversionshavebeensuggested.,.,Someofthemajordistinctionsincludeconsonantal,sonorant(响音),nasalandvoiced.Thefeatureconsonantalcandistinguishbetweenconsonantsandvowels,soallconsonantsare+consonantalandallvowelsconsonantal.,.,sonorantdistinguishesbetweenwhatwecallobstruents(stops,fricativesandaffricates)andsonorants(allotherconsonantsandvowels),withobstruentsbeingsonorantandothers+sonorant.nasalandvoicedofcoursedistinguishnasal(includingnasalized)soundsandvoicedsoundsrespectively.,.,Theseareknownasbinaryfeatures(二分特征)becausewecangroupthemintotwocategories:onewiththisfeatureandtheotherwithout.Binaryfeatureshavetwovaluesorspecificationsdenotedby+andsovoicedobstruentsaremarked+voicedandvoicelessobstruentsaremarkedvoiced.,.,Theplacefeatures(部位特征)arenotbinaryfeaturestheyaredividedupintofourvalues:PLACE:Labial,PLACE:Coronal舌冠音,PLACE:Dorsal舌面音,andPLACE:Radical全音,whichareoftenwritteninshorthandformsasLabialp,Coronalp,Dorsalp,andRadicalp.,.,.,.,Ausefulfeatureforconsonantsnotfoundhereisspread(forspreadglottis),whichdistinguishesbetweenaspiratedandunaspiratedvoicelessobstruents.Aspiratedsoundsare+spreadandunaspiratedsoundsarespread.Nowwecanrepresenttherulethatgovernstheunaspirationof/p/aftersintermsoffeatures:,.,Thisisamoregeneralrule,whichalsoappliesto/t/and/k/.Itmeansthat/p,t,k/(voiced,cont)areallunaspirated(spread)aftersandaspirated(+spread)inallotherpositions.,.,PasttenseformsinEnglish,stopped,walked,coughed,kissed,leashed,reachedstabbed,wagged,achieved,buzzed,soothed,bridgedsteamed,stunned,pulledplayed,flowed,studiedwanted,located,decided,guided,.,.,Suprasegmentals（超音段）,Suprasegmentalfeaturesarethoseaspectsofspeechthatinvolvemorethansinglesoundsegments.Theprincipalsuprasegmentalsare:SyllableStressToneIntonation,.,Thesyllablestructure,.,Opensyllable(开音节):bar,tieClosedsyllable:bard,tiedEnglishSyllable:(C)C)C)V(C)C)C)C)Chinesesyllable:(C)V(C)MaximalOnsetPrinciple(MOP)Whenthereisachoiceastowheretoplaceaconsonant,itisputintotheonsetratherthanthecoda.,.,Stress,Stressreferstothedegreeofforceusedinproducingasyllable.Intranscription,araisedverticallineisoftenusedjustbeforethesyllableitrelatesto.Abasicdistinctionismadebetweenstressedandunstressedsyllables,theformerbeingmoreprominentthanthelatter,whichmeansthatstressisarelativenotion.,.,Atthewordlevel,itonlyappliestowordswithatleasttwosyllables.Atthesentencelevel,amonosyllabicwordmaybesaidtobestressedrelativetootherwordsinthesentence.,.,ChangingEnglishStressPattern,BecomingnorminTEGralcoMMUNalforMIDableconTROVersy,ConsideredconservativeINtegralCOMMunalFORmidableCONtroversy,.,RPvs.GA,RPlaBORatoryDEBrisGARage,GALABoratorydeBRISgaRAGE,.,Vvs.N,VerbconVICTinSULTproDUCEreBEL,NounCONvictINsultPROduceREbel,.,Compoundvs.Phrase,CompoundBLACKboardBLACKbird,PhraseblackBOARDblackBIRD,.,Primaryvs.SecondaryStress,epiphenomenal,unsatisfactorydis,crimination,standardizationco,mmunicationin,dustrialization,.,Inasentence,stressedpartsofspeech:nouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronouns;unstressedcategories:articles,personalpronouns,auxiliaryverbs,prepositionsandconjunctions.Foremphaticpurpose,unstressedwordscanalsobestressed.,SentenceStress,.,Johnboughtaredcar.JOHNboughtaredcar.JohnBOUGHTaredcar.J