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C6140 普通 车床 主轴 传动 设计

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C6140普通车床主轴箱传动设计,C6140,普通,车床,主轴,传动,设计

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25毕业设计（论文）题目： C6140普通车床主轴箱传动设计 二O一一 年 六 月 目录1.车床参数的拟定- -21.1概述-21.2参数的拟定-22.运动设计- -32.1传动结构式、结构网的选择确定-32.1.1传动组及各传动组中传动副的数目-32.1.2传动系统扩大顺序的安排 -32.1.3绘制结构网-42.1.4传动组的变速范围的极限值-42.1.5最大扩大组的选择-52.2转速图的拟定-52.2.1主电机的选定-52.3齿轮齿数的确定及传动系统图的绘制-5 2.3.1齿轮齿数的确定的要求-52.3.2变速传动组中齿轮齿数的确定-63.强度计算和结构草图设计- -93.1确定计算转速-93.1.1主轴的计算转速-93.1.2中间传动件的计算转速-93.1.3齿轮的计算转速-103.2传动轴的估算和验算-103.2.1传动轴直径的估算-103.2.2主轴的设计与计算-113.2.3主轴材料与热处理-123.3齿轮模数的估算和计算-143.3.1齿轮模数的估算-143.3.2齿轮模数的验算-173.4轴承的选择与校核-193.4.1一般传动轴上的轴承选择-193.4.2主轴轴承的类型-203.4.3轴承间隙调整-203.4.4轴承的校核-213.5摩擦离合器的选择与验算-223.5.1按扭矩选择-223.5.2外摩擦片的内径d- -22总结- 23参考文献- -24致谢- 251.车床参数的拟定1. 1概述车床的规格系列和用处普通机床的规格和类型有系列型谱作为设计时应该遵照的基础。因此，对这些基本知识和资料作些简要介绍。本次设计的是普通型车床C6140主轴变速箱。主要用于加工回转体。车床的主参数（规格尺寸）和基本参数（GB1582-79，JB/Z143-79）工件最大回转直径D(mm)正转最高转速nmax( )电机功率N（kw）公比转速级数Z反转40014005.51.4112级数Z反=Z正/2；n反max1.1n正max1.2参数的拟定1.2.1 确定极限转速 ， 又=1.41 得=43.79. 取 =45；，去标准转速列.1.2.2 主电机选择合理的确定电机功率N，使机床既能充分发挥其使用性能，满足生产需要，又不致使电机经常轻载而降低功率因素。已知电动机的功率是5.5KW，根据车床设计手册附录表2选Y132S-4，额定功率5.5，满载转速1440 ，最大额定转距2.2。2.运动设计2.1传动结构式、结构网的选择确定2.1.1传动组及各传动组中传动副的数目级数为Z的传动系统由若干个顺序的传递组组成，各传动组分别有Z1、Z2、Z3、个传动副.即Z=Z1Z2Z3传动副数由于结构的限制以2或3为适合，即变速级数Z应为2和3的因子： 即 Z=2a3b实现12级主轴转速变化的传动系统可以写成多种传动副的组合:1) 12=34 2) 12=433) 12=322 4) 12=2325) 12=223按照传动副“前多后少”的原则选择Z=322这一方案，但主轴换向采用双向片式摩擦离合器结构，致使轴的轴向尺寸过大，所以此方案不宜采用，而应先择12=232。方案4）是比较合理的 12=2322.1.2 传动系统扩大顺序的安排12=232的传动副组合，其传动组的扩大顺序又可以有6种形式：1) 12=213226 2) 12=2134223) 12=233126 4) 12=2631235) 12=223421 6) 12=263221根据级比指数分配要“前密后疏”的原则，应选用Z=这一方案，然而对于我们所设计的结构将会出现两个问题：第一变速组采用降速传动时，由于摩擦离合器径向结构尺寸限制，使得轴上的齿轮直径不能太小，轴上的齿轮则会成倍增大。这样，不仅使-轴间中心距加大，而且-轴间的中心距也会辊大，从而使整个传动系统结构尺寸增大。这种传动不宜采用。如果第一变速组采用升速传动，则轴至主轴间的降速传动只能同后两个变速组承担。为了避免出现降速比小于允许的杉限值，常常需要增加一个定比降速传动组，使系统结构复杂。这种传动也不是理想的。如果采用Z=这一方案则可解决上述存在的问题。2.1.3 绘制结构网图2.1结构网2.1.4 传动组的变速范围的极限值齿轮传动最小传动比Umin1/4,最大传动比Umax,决定了一个传动组的最大变速范围rmax=umax/umin。因此，要按照下表，淘汰传动组变速范围超过极限值的所有传动方案。极限传动比及指数X,X,值为：表2.1 公比极限传动比指数1.41X值：Umin=1/44X,值：Umax=x, =22(X+ X,)值：rmin=x+x=862.1.5最大扩大组的选择正常连续的顺序扩大组的传动的传动结构式为：Z=Z11Z2Z1Z3Z1Z2最后扩大组的变速范围按照r原则，导出系统的最大级数Z和变速范围Rn为：表2.2 Z3 2 3 1.41 Z=12 Rn=44 Z=9 Rn=15.6最后扩大组的传动副数目Z3=2时的转速范围远比Z3=3时大因此，在机床设计中，因要求的R较大，最后扩大组应取2更为合适。同时，最后传动组与最后扩大组往往是一致的。安装在主轴与主轴前一传动轴的具有极限或接近传动比的齿轮副承受最大扭距，在结构上可获得较为满意的处理，这也就是最后传动组的传动副经常为2的另一原因。2.2 转速图的拟定运动参数确定以后，主轴各级转速就已知，切削耗能确定了电机功率。在此基础上，选择电机型号，确定各中间传动轴的转速，这样就拟定主运动的转速图，使主运动逐步具体化。2.2.1主电机的选定1）电机功率N：中型机床上，一般都采用三相交流异步电动机作为动力源。根据机床切削能力的要求确定电机功率：N=5.5KW2） 电机转速：选用时，要使电机转速与主轴最高转速和I轴转速相近或相宜，以免采用过大的升速或过小的降速传动。=1440r/min3）分配降速比: 该车床主轴传动系统共设有四个传动组其中有一个是带传动。根据降速比分配应“前慢后快”的原则以及摩擦离合器的工作速度要求，确定各传动组最小传动比。u总=/ =28/1440=1/51.4分配总降速传动比时，要考虑是否增加定比传动副，以使转速数列符合标准和有利于减小齿数和减小径向与轴向尺寸，必须按“前慢后快”的原则给串联的各变速器分配最小传动比。a 决定轴-的最小降速传动比主轴上的齿轮希望大一些，能起到飞轮的作用，所以最后一个变速组的最小降速传动比取极限1/4，公比=1.41，1.414=4，因此从 轴的最下点向上4格，找到上对应的点，连接对应的两点即为-轴的最小传动比。b 决定其余变速组的最小传动比根据“前慢后快”的原则，轴-间变速组取umin=1/3，即从轴向上3格，同理，轴-间取u=1/3，连接各线。c 根据个变速组的传动比连线按基本组的级比指数x0=3，第一扩大组的级比指数x1=1，第二扩大组的级比指数x3=6,画出传动系统图如2.2所示 图2.2转速图2.3 齿轮齿数的确定及传动系统图的绘制2.3.1齿轮齿数的确定的要求可用计算法或查表确定齿轮齿数，后者更为简便，根据要求的传动比u和初步定出的传动副齿数和，查表即可求出小齿轮齿数。选择时应考虑：1.传动组小齿轮应保证不产生根切。对于标准齿轮，其最小齿数=172.齿轮的齿数和不能太大，以免齿轮尺寸过大而引起机床结构增大，一般推荐齿数和100-120，常选用在100之内。3.同一变速组中的各对齿轮，其中心距必须保证相等。4.保证强度和防止热处理变形过大，齿轮齿根圆到键槽的壁厚5. 保证主轴的转速误差在规定的范围之内。 图2.3 齿轮的壁厚 2.3.2 变速传动组中齿轮齿数的确定 1）确定齿轮齿数 1. 用计算法确定第一个变速组中各齿轮的齿数 Zj+Zj= Zj/Zj =uj其中 Zj主动齿轮的齿数 Zj被动齿轮的齿数 uj一对齿轮的传动比 一对齿轮的齿数和为了保证不产生根切以及保证最小齿轮装到轴上或套筒上具有足够的强度，最小齿轮必然是在降速比最大的传动副上出现。把Z1的齿数取大些：取Z1=Zmin=20则 Z2= =58齿数和=Z1+Z2=20+58=78同样根据公式 Z3=39 2. 用查表法确定第二变速组的齿数a 首先在u1、u2、u3中找出最小齿数的传动比u1b 为了避免根切和结构需要，取Zmin=24c 查表找到u1=1/1.413的倒数2.82的行找到Zmin=24查表最小齿数和为92d 找出可能的齿数和的各种数值，这些数值必须同时满足各传动比要求的齿轮齿数 能同时满足三个传动比要求的齿数和有=92 96 99 102e 确定合理的齿数和 =102 依次可以查得Z5=27 Z6=75Z7=34 Z8=68Z9=42 Z10=60同理可得其它的齿轮如下表所示：表2.3变速组第一变速组第二变速组第三变速组齿数和78102114齿轮Z1Z2Z3Z4Z5Z6Z7Z8Z9Z10Z11Z12Z13Z14齿数20583939247834684260239176382）验算主轴转速误差由于确定的齿轮齿数所得的实际转速与传动设计的理论转速难以完全相符，需要验算主轴各级转速，最大误差不得超过10(-1)%。主轴各级实际转速值用下式计算n实=nE(1-)uaubucud其中 滑移系数=0.2ua ub uc ud分别为各级的传动比12/45 转速误差用主轴实际转速与标准转速相对误差的绝对值表示n=10(-1)%n实1=14400.6250.980.350.350.25=27.8n=(27.8-28)/28=0.7%同样其他的实际转速及转速误差如下:表2.4主轴转速n1n2n3n4n5n6n7n8n9n10n11n12标准转速284056801121602243154506309001250实际转速27.839.855.779.6111.2159.3223.6314.5445.6628.4897.81244.9转速误差0.70.5 0.4转速误差满足要求。 3） 齿轮的布置为了使变速箱结构紧凑以及考虑主轴适当的支承距离和散热条件，其齿轮的布置如下图2.4所示。4）绘制主传动系统图 按照主传动转速图以及齿轮齿数绘制主传动系统图如下2.5所示 图2.4 齿轮结构的布置图2.5主传动系统图3 .强度计算和结构草图设计3.1 确定计算转速3.1.1主轴的计算转速nj=nminz/3-1z=12nj=nmin3 =282.82=79r/min3.1.2中间传动件的计算转速轴上的6级转速分别为：112、160、224、315、450、630r/min.主轴在79r/min以上都可以传递全部功率。轴经Z13-Z14传递到主轴，这时从112r/min以上的转速全部功率，所以确定最低转速112r/min为轴的计算转速。按上述的方法从转速图中分别可找到计算转速：轴为315r/min,轴为900r/min,电动机轴为1440r/min.3.1.3齿轮的计算转速Z10安装在轴上，从转速图可见Z10齿轮本身有6种转速，其要传递全部的功率的计算转速为112r/min。同样可以确定其余齿轮的转速如下表3.1所示：表3.1齿轮Z1ZZZZZZZZZ1Z1Z1Z1Z1计算转速9003159009003151123151123151121501601121123.2传动轴的估算和验算3.2.1传动轴直径的估算传动轴直径按扭转刚度用下列公式估算传动轴直径： mm其中：N该传动轴的输入功率KWNd电机额定功率；从电机到该传动轴之间传动件的传动效率的乘积该传动轴的计算转速r/min每米长度上允许的扭转角(deg/m),可根据传动轴的要求选取如表3.2所示表3.2 刚度要求允许的扭转角 主 轴 一般的传动轴较低的传动轴0.5111.51.52对于一般的传动轴，取=1.5 KW=900 r/min mm取mmKW=425 r/min =37 mm取 KW=150 mm采用花键轴结构，即将估算的传动轴直径d减小7%为花键轴的直径，在选相近的标准花键。d1=29.30.93=27.0d2=34.50.93=32.0d3=42.20.93=40.0查表可以选取花键的型号其尺寸分别为轴取 6-28327轴取 8-32366轴取 8-424680 3.2.2 主轴的设计与计算主轴组件结构复杂，技术要求高。安装工件的主轴参与切削成形运动，此，它的精度和性能性能直接影响加工质量（加工精度与表面粗糙度）。1）主轴直径的选择查表可以选取前支承轴颈直径D1=90 mm后支承轴颈直径 D2=(0.70.85)D1=6377 mm 选取 D2=70 mm2）主轴内径的选择车床主轴由于要通过棒料，安装自动卡盘的操纵机构及通过卸顶尖的顶杆必须是空心轴。确定孔径的原则是在满足对空心主轴孔径要求和最小壁厚要求以及不削弱主轴刚度的要求尽可能取大些。推荐：普通车床d/D(或d1/D1)=0.550.6其中 D主轴的平均直径，D=(D1+D2)/2 d1前轴颈处内孔直径d=(0.550.6)D=4448 mm所以，内孔直径取45mm3）前锥孔尺寸前锥孔用来装顶尖或其它工具锥柄，要求能自锁，目前采用莫氏锥孔。选择如下：莫氏锥度号取5号标准莫氏锥度尺寸大端直径 D=44.3994）主轴前端悬伸量的选择确定主轴悬伸量a的原则是在满足结构要求的前提下，尽可能取小值。主轴悬伸量与前轴颈直径之比a/D=0.61.5a=(0.61.5)D1=54135 mm所以，悬伸量取100mm5）主轴合理跨距和最佳跨距选择 根据表3-14 见机械设计手册计算前支承刚度。 前后轴承均用3182100系列轴承，并采用前端定位的方式。查表 =1700901.4=9.26105 N/mm因为后轴承直径小于前轴承，取KB =6.61105N/mm其中 为参变量综合变量其中 E弹性模量，取E=2.0105 N/mm2 I转动惯量，I=(D4-d4)/64=3.14(804-454)=1.81106mm4 = =0.3909由图3-34中，在横坐标上找出=0.3909的点向上作垂线与的斜线相交，由交点向左作水平线与纵坐标轴相交，得L0/a=2.5。所以最佳跨距L0 L0=2.5a=2.5100=250 mm又因为合理跨距的范围 L合理=(0.751.5)L0=187.5375 mm所以取L=260 mm6）主轴刚度的验算对于一般机床主轴，主要进行刚度验算，通常能满足刚度要求的主轴也能满足强度要求。对于一般受弯矩作用的主轴，需要进行弯矩刚度验算。主要验算主轴轴端的位移y和前轴承处的转角A。图3.1 主轴支承的简化 切削力 Fz=3026N挠度 yA= = =0.01 y=0.0002L=0.0002260=0.052 yAy倾角 A= = =0.00011前端装有圆柱滚子轴承，查表A=0.001rad AA 符合刚度要求。3.2.3 主轴材料与热处理材料为45钢，调质到220250HBS，主轴端部锥孔、定心轴颈或定心圆锥面等部位局部淬硬至HRC5055，轴径应淬硬。3.3 齿轮模数的估算和计算3.3.1齿轮模数的估算根据齿轮弯曲疲劳的估算：mm齿面点蚀的估算：mm其中为大齿轮的计算转速，A为齿轮中心距。由中心距A及齿数、求出模数：mm根据估算所得和中较大的值，选取相近的标准模数。1）齿数为32与64的齿轮N=5.28KW mm= mm mm取模数为22）齿数为56与40的齿轮 mm=mmmm取模数为23）齿数为27与75的齿轮 N=5.25KW mm =mmmm取模数为2.54）齿数为34与68的齿轮N=525KW mm=mm mm取模数为2.55）齿数为42与60的齿轮 N=5.25KW mm=mmmm取模数为2.56）齿数为23与91的齿轮N=5.20KWmm =mmmm取模数为2.57）齿数为76与38的齿轮 N=5.20KW mm =mmmm取模数为 齿轮模数的验算结构确定以后，齿轮的工作条件、空间安排、材料和精度等级等都已确定，才可能核验齿轮的接触疲劳和弯曲疲劳强度值是否满足要求。根据齿轮的接触疲劳计算齿轮模数公式为：mm根据齿轮的弯曲疲劳强度计算齿轮模数公式为：mm式中：N-计算齿轮传递的额定功率 -计算齿轮（小齿轮）的计算转速r/min-齿宽系数，常取610；-计算齿轮的齿数，一般取传动中最小齿轮的齿数；-大齿轮与小齿轮的齿数比，；“+”用于外啮合，“-”号用于内啮合；-寿命系数，；3.5-工作期限系数，；3.6齿轮等传动件在接触和弯曲交变载荷下的疲劳曲线指数m和基准循环次数Con-齿轮的最低转速r/min;T-预定的齿轮工作期限，中型机床推荐：T=1500020000h;-转速变化系数-功率利用系数-材料强化系数。幅值低的交变我荷可使金属材料的晶粒边界强化，起着阻止疲劳细缝扩展的作用；（寿命系数）的极限当；-工作情况系数。中等冲击的主运动：=1.21.6；-动载荷系数-齿向载荷分布系数Y-齿形系数；、-许用弯曲、接触应力MPa1)齿数为32与64的齿轮KWmm节圆速度m/s由表8可得：取精度等级为7级 。 =1.2 由表9得：=1 =0.71 由表可知 所以 取Ks=0.6由表11 许用应力知，可取齿轮材料为45 整淬=1100MPa =320MPa由表10可知 可查得 Y=0.45所以 模数取2适合要求。同样可以校核其它齿轮的模数也符合要求。3.4 轴承的选择与校核机床传动轴常用的滚动轴承有球轴承和滚锥轴承。在温升。空载功率和噪音等方面，球轴承都比滚锥轴承优越。而且滚锥轴承对轴的刚度、支承孔的加工精度要求都比较高，异常球轴承用得更多。但滚锥轴承的内外圈可以公开。装配方便，间隙容易调整。所以有时在没有轴向力时，也常采用这种轴承。选择轴承的型式和尺寸，首先取决于承载能力，但也要考虑其它结构条件。即要满足承载能力要求，又要符合孔的加工工艺，可以用轻、中、或重系列的轴承来达到支承孔直径的安排要求。花键轴两端装轴承的轴颈尺寸至少有一个应小于花键的内径，一般传动轴承选用G级精度。3.4.1一般传动轴上的轴承选择在传动轴上选择6200系列的深沟球轴承，其具体的型号和尺寸如下表3.3所示表3.3 传动轴 轴承型号620572067207 轴承尺寸 2552 305535723.4.2主轴轴承的类型主轴的前轴承选取3182100系列双列向心短圆柱滚子轴承。这种轴承承载能力大，内孔有1：12锥度，磨擦系数小，温升低，但不能承受轴向力，必须和能承受轴向力的轴承配合使用，因此整个部件支承结构比较复杂。 图 轴承间隙调整为了提高主轴回转精度和刚度，主轴轴承的间隙应能调整。把轴承调到合适的负间隙，形成一定的预负载，回转精度和刚度都能提高，寿命、噪声和抗振性也有改善。预负载使轴承内产生接触变形，过大的预负载对提高刚度没有明显效果，而磨损发热量和噪声都会增大，轴承寿命将因此而降低。调整结构形式如下图所示： 图3.2调整说明：转动调整螺母，使内圈向大端移动。特点：结构简单。移动量完全靠经验，一旦调整过紧，难以把内圈退回。3.4.4轴承的较核1) 滚动轴承的疲劳寿命验算或额定寿命 (h) 额定动载荷(N) 动载荷(N)滚动轴承的许用寿命(h)，一般取1000015000(h)寿命指数，对球轴承 =3 ，对滚子轴承=10/3速度系数， 轴承的计算转数 r/min寿命系数， 使用系数 转化变化系数 齿轮轮换工作系数 当量动负荷(N)2)滚动轴承的静负荷验算 静负荷 (N) 额定静负荷 (N)安全系数 当量静载荷 (N) (N)、静径向，轴向系数校验第根轴上的轴承T=10000h查轴承样本可知，6205轴承的基本额定动载荷=212000N =850 r/min =096 =0.8 =0.8 = =21437500同样可以较核其它轴承也符合要求。3.5 摩擦离合器的选择与验算3.5.1按扭矩选择K=Kx9550 Nm式中离合器的额定静力矩(Kgm) K安全系数 运转时的最大负载力矩查机械设计手册表，取K=2 =0.96则K= =118.8 Nm3.5.2外摩擦片的内径d根据结构需要采用轴装式摩擦片，摩擦片的内径d应比安装在轴的轴径大26mm,取d=35mm3.5.3选择摩擦片尺寸(自行设计)尺寸如下表3.4所示 表3.4片数静力矩dDD1Bb96035909830103.5.4计算摩擦面的对数Z 式中：f-摩擦片间的摩擦系数； p-许用压强MPa；D-摩擦片内片外径 mm； d-摩擦片外片内径 mm；-速度修正系数； -接合面数修正系数； -接个次数修正系数； K-安全系数。分别查表 1.2 mm =35mm 1.0 =103.5.5摩擦片片数摩擦片总数为（z+1）片，即11片，根据具体情况设内为6片，外5片。计算轴向压力Q=3.141.0=5073N总结经过大学四年艰苦学习，我们顺利的完成了机械设计制造及自动化专业所学的全部课程，初步已具备了一个机械工程技术人员所具备的基本知识和技能，今后还需要进一步在实践中不断地探索与积累。 这次毕业设计是我们零件课程设计和工艺课程设计之后的一次对我们更全面更综合的考核是一次综合的训练.我们毕业设计题目是C6140普通车床主轴箱传动设计。通过毕业设计学到了很多知识，收获很大。经过设计，分析得出了以下结论：（1） 进行了主传动设计（2） 对传动件进行了估算和验算（3） 对各部件断行了结构设计（4） 对主轴组件进行了验算这次毕业设计为我们走向工作岗位尊定了基础。参考文献1 上海纺织工学院编.机床设计图册.上海科技出版社，1997 2 孙桓，陈作模主编.机械原理.第六版.北京：高等教育出版社，2002 3 成大先主编.机械设计手册.北京：化学工业出版社，2004 4 张玉峰等主编.机床主轴变速箱设计指导.机械工业出版社，2000 5机械制造装备设计.冯辛安主编.机械工业出版社6机械设计. 吴宗泽主编. 高等教育出版社7 机械原理.邹慧君等主编. 高等教育出版社8机械制造技术基础. 曾志新主编.武汉理工大学出版社 9理论力学. 陈昭仪. 航空工业出版社10 材料力学. 戴少度. 国防工业出版社11 机械加工手册. 陈心昭. 机械工业出版社12 毛谦德 李振清主编.袖珍机械设计师手册第二版.机械工业出版社,200213机床设计手册编写组 主编.机床设计手册.北京:机械工业出版社,198014华东纺织工学院 哈尔滨工业大学 天津大学主编.机床设计图册.上海:上海科学技术出版社,1979年6月15 Ye Zhonghe, Lan Zhaohui. Mechanisms and Machine Theory. Higher Education Press, 2001.7致 谢 在论文完成之际，我要特别感谢我的指导老师吴晖老师的热情关怀和悉心指导。吴老师平日里工作繁多，但在我做毕业设计的每个阶段，从外出实习到查阅资料，设计草案的确定和修改，中期检查，后期详细设计，程序调试等整个过程中都给予了我悉心的指导。我的设计较为复杂烦琐，但是朱老师仍然细心地纠正程序中的错误。除了敬佩吴老师的专业水平外，他的治学严谨和科学研究的精神也是我永远学习的榜样，并将积极影响我今后的学习和工作。同时也要感谢和我一组的同学们，在论文的写作过程中，正是有了他们的帮助和指导，才使得我的毕业论文能够快速顺利的完成。 然后还要感谢所有关心、支持、帮助过我的良师益友。 最后，向在百忙中抽出时间对本文进行评审并提出宝贵意见的各位老师表示衷心地感谢！25齿轮和轴的介绍 摘要:在传统机械和现代机械中齿轮和轴的重要地位是不可动摇的。齿轮和轴主要安装在主轴箱来传递力的方向。通过加工制造它们可以分为许多的型号，分别用于许多的场合。所以我们对齿轮和轴的了解和认识必须是多层次多方位的。关键词:齿轮；轴在直齿圆柱齿轮的受力分析中，是假定各力作用在单一平面的。我们将研究作用力具有三维坐标的齿轮。因此，在斜齿轮的情况下，其齿向是不平行于回转轴线的。而在锥齿轮的情况中各回转轴线互相不平行。像我们要讨论的那样，尚有其他道理需要学习，掌握。斜齿轮用于传递平行轴之间的运动。倾斜角度每个齿轮都一样，但一个必须右旋斜齿，而另一个必须是左旋斜齿。齿的形状是一溅开线螺旋面。如果一张被剪成平行四边形（矩形）的纸张包围在齿轮圆柱体上，纸上印出齿的角刃边就变成斜线。如果我展开这张纸，在血角刃边上的每一个点就发生一渐开线曲线。直齿圆柱齿轮轮齿的初始接触处是跨过整个齿面而伸展开来的线。斜齿轮轮齿的初始接触是一点，当齿进入更多的啮合时，它就变成线。在直齿圆柱齿轮中，接触是平行于回转轴线的。在斜齿轮中，该先是跨过齿面的对角线。它是齿轮逐渐进行啮合并平稳的从一个齿到另一个齿传递运动，那样就使斜齿轮具有高速重载下平稳传递运动的能力。斜齿轮使轴的轴承承受径向和轴向力。当轴向推力变的大了或由于别的原因而产生某些影响时，那就可以使用人字齿轮。双斜齿轮（人字齿轮）是与反向的并排地装在同一轴上的两个斜齿轮等效。他们产生相反的轴向推力作用，这样就消除了轴向推力。当两个或更多个单向齿斜齿轮被在同一轴上时，齿轮的齿向应作选择，以便产生最小的轴向推力。交错轴斜齿轮或螺旋齿轮，他们是轴中心线既不相交也不平行。交错轴斜齿轮的齿彼此之间发生点接触，它随着齿轮的磨合而变成线接触。因此他们只能传递小的载荷和主要用于仪器设备中，而且肯定不能推荐在动力传动中使用。交错轴斜齿轮与斜齿轮之间在被安装后互相捏合之前是没有任何区别的。它们是以同样的方法进行制造。一对相啮合的交错轴斜齿轮通常具有同样的齿向，即左旋主动齿轮跟右旋从动齿轮相啮合。在交错轴斜齿设计中，当该齿的斜角相等时所产生滑移速度最小。然而当该齿的斜角不相等时，如果两个齿轮具有相同齿向的话，大斜角齿轮应用作主动齿轮。蜗轮与交错轴斜齿轮相似。小齿轮即蜗杆具有较小的齿数，通常是一到四齿，由于它们完全缠绕在节圆柱上，因此它们被称为螺纹齿。与其相配的齿轮叫做蜗轮，蜗轮不是真正的斜齿轮。蜗杆和蜗轮通常是用于向垂直相交轴之间的传动提供大的角速度减速比。蜗轮不是斜齿轮，因为其齿顶面做成中凹形状以适配蜗杆曲率，目的是要形成线接触而不是点接触。然而蜗杆蜗轮传动机构中 马棚网存在齿间有较大滑移速度的缺点，正像交错轴斜齿轮那样。 蜗杆蜗轮机构有单包围和双包围机构。单包围机构就是蜗轮包裹着蜗杆的一种机构。当然，如果每个构件各自局部地包围着对方的蜗轮机构就是双包围蜗轮蜗杆机构。着两者之间的重要区别是，在双包围蜗轮组的轮齿间有面接触，而在单包围的蜗轮组的轮齿间有线接触。一个装置中的蜗杆和蜗轮正像交错轴斜齿轮那样具有相同的齿向，但是其斜齿齿角的角度是极不相同的。蜗杆上的齿斜角度通常很大，而蜗轮上的则极小，因此习惯常规定蜗杆的导角，那就是蜗杆齿斜角的余角；也规定了蜗轮上的齿斜角，该两角之和就等于90度的轴线交角。当齿轮要用来传递相交轴之间的运动时，就需要某种形式的锥齿轮。虽然锥齿轮通常制造成能构成90度轴交角，但它们也可产生任何角度的轴交角。轮齿可以铸出，铣制或滚切加工。仅就滚齿而言就可达一级精度。在典型的锥齿轮安装中，其中一个锥齿轮常常装于支承的外侧。这意味着轴的挠曲情况更加明显而使在轮齿接触上具有更大的影响。另外一个难题，发生在难于预示锥齿轮轮齿上的应力，实际上是由于齿轮被加工成锥状造成的。直齿锥齿轮易于设计且制造简单，如果他们安装的精密而确定，在运转中会产生良好效果。然而在直齿圆柱齿轮情况下，在节线速度较高时，他们将发出噪音。在这些情况下，螺旋锥齿轮比直齿轮能产生平稳的多的啮合作用，因此碰到高速运转的场合那是很有用的。当在汽车的各种不同用途中，有一个带偏心轴的类似锥齿轮的机构，那是常常所希望的。这样的齿轮机构叫做准双曲面齿轮机构，因为它们的节面是双曲回转面。这种齿轮之间的轮齿作用是沿着一根直线上产生滚动与滑动相结合的运动并和蜗轮蜗杆的轮齿作用有着更多的共同之处。轴是一种转动或静止的杆件。通常有圆形横截面。在轴上安装像齿轮，皮带轮，飞轮，曲柄，链轮和其他动力传递零件。轴能够承受弯曲，拉伸，压缩或扭转载荷，这些力相结合时，人们期望找到静强度和疲劳强度作为设计的重要依据。因为单根轴可以承受静压力，变应力和交变应力，所有的应力作用都是同时发生的。“轴”这个词包含着多种含义，例如心轴和主轴。心轴也是轴，既可以旋转也可以静止的轴，但不承受扭转载荷。短的转动轴常常被称为主轴。当轴的弯曲或扭转变形必需被限制于很小的范围内时，其尺寸应根据变形来确定，然后进行应力分析。因此，如若轴要做得有足够的刚度以致挠曲不太大，那么合应力符合安全要求那是完全可能的。但决不意味着设计者要保证；它们是安全的，轴几乎总是要进行计算的，知道它们是处在可以接受的允许的极限以内。因之，设计者无论何时，动力传递零件，如齿轮或皮带轮都应该设置在靠近支持轴承附近。这就减低了弯矩，因而减小变形和弯曲应力。虽然来自M.H.G方法在设计轴中难于应用，但它可能用来准确预示实际失效。这样，它是一个检验已经设计好了的轴的或者发现具体轴在运转中发生损坏原因的好方法。进而有着大量的关于设计的问题，其中由于别的考虑例如刚度考虑，尺寸已得到较好的限制。设计者去查找关于圆角尺寸、热处理、表面光洁度和是否要进行喷丸处理等资料，那真正的唯一的需要是实现所要求的寿命和可靠性。由于他们的功能相似，将离合器和制动器一起处理。简化摩擦离合器或制动器的动力学表达式中，各自以角速度w1和w2运动的两个转动惯量I1和I2，在制动器情况下其中之一可能是零，由于接上离合器或制动器而最终要导致同样的速度。因为两个构件开始以不同速度运转而使打滑发生了，并且在作用过程中能量散失，结果导致温升。在分析这些装置的性能时，我们应注意到作用力，传递的扭矩，散失的能量和温升。所传递的扭矩关系到作用力，摩擦系数和离 马棚网合器或制动器的几何状况。这是一个静力学问题。这个问题将必须对每个几何机构形状分别进行研究。然而温升与能量损失有关，研究温升可能与制动器或离合器的类型无关。因为几何形状的重要性是散热表面。各种各样的离合器和制动器可作如下分类： 1轮缘式内膨胀制冻块；2轮缘式外接触制动块；3条带式；4盘型或轴向式；5圆锥型；6混合式。分析摩擦离合器和制动器的各种形式都应用一般的同样的程序，下面的步骤是必需的：1假定或确定摩擦表面上压力分布；2找出最大压力和任一点处压力之间的关系；3应用静平衡条件去找寻（a）作用力；（b）扭矩；(c)支反力。混合式离合器包括几个类型，例如强制接触离合器、超载释放保护离合器、超越离合器、磁液离合器等等。强制接触离合器由一个变位杆和两个夹爪组成。各种强制接触离合器之间最大的区别与夹爪的设计有关。为了在结合过程中给变换作用予较长时间周期，夹爪可以是棘轮式的，螺旋型或齿型的。有时使用许多齿或夹爪。他们可能在圆周面上加工齿，以便他们以圆柱周向配合来结合或者在配合元件的端面上加工齿来结合。虽然强制离合器不像摩擦接触离合器用的那么广泛，但它们确实有很重要的运用。离合器需要同步操作。有些装置例如线性驱动装置或电机操作螺杆驱动器必须运行到一定的限度然后停顿下来。为着这些用途就需要超载释放保护离合器。这些离合器通常用弹簧加载，以使得在达到预定的力矩时释放。当到达超载点时听到的“喀嚓”声就被认定为是所希望的信号声。超越离合器或连轴器允许机器的被动构件“空转”或“超越”，因为主动驱动件停顿了或者因为另一个动力源使被动构件增加了速度。这种离合器通常使用装在外套筒和内轴件之间的滚子或滚珠。该内轴件，在它的周边加工了数个平面。驱动作用是靠在套筒和平面之间契入的滚子来获得。因此该离合器与具有一定数量齿的棘轮棘爪机构等效。磁液离合器或制动器相对来说是一个新的发展，它们具有两平行的磁极板。这些磁极板之间有磁粉混合物润滑。电磁线圈被装入磁路中的某处。借助激励该线圈，磁液混合物的剪切强度可被精确的控制。这样从充分滑移到完全锁住的任何状态都可以获得。加工基础作为产生形状的一种加工方法，机械加 马棚网工是所有制造过程中最普遍使用的而且是最重要的方法。机械加工过程是一个产生形状的过程，在这过程中，驱动装置使工件上的一些材料以切屑的形式被去除。尽管在某些场合，工件无承受情况下，使用移动式装备来实现加工，但大多数的机械加工是通过既支承工件又支承刀具的装备来完成。 机械加工在知道过程中具备两方面。小批生产低费用。对于铸造、锻造和压力加工，每一个要生产的具体工件形状，即使是一个零件，几乎都要花费高额的加工费用。靠焊接来产生的结构形状，在很大程度上取决于有效的原材料的形式。一般来说，通过利用贵重设备而又无需特种加工条件下，几乎可以以任何种类原材料开始，借助机械加工把原材料加工成任意所需要的结构形状，只要外部尺寸足够大，那都是可能的。因此对于生产一个零件，甚至当零件结构及要生产的批量大小上按原来都适于用铸造、锻造或者压力加工来生产的，但通常宁可选择机械加工。严密的精度和良好的表面光洁度，机械加工的第二方面用途是建立在高精度和可能的表面光洁度基础上。许多零件，如果用别的其他方法来生产属于大批量生产的话，那么在机械加工中则是属于低公差且又能满足要求的小批量生产了。另方面，许多零件靠较粗的生产加工工艺提高其一般表面形状，而仅仅是在需要高精度的且选择过的表面才进行机械加工。例如内螺纹，除了机械加工之外，几乎没有别的加工方法能进行加工。又如已锻工件上的小孔加工，也是被锻后紧接着进行机械加工才完成的。基本的机械加工参数 切削中工件与刀具的基本关系是以以下四个要素来充分描述的：刀具的几何形状，切削速度，进给速度，和吃刀深度。切削刀具必须用一种合适的材料来制造，它必须是强固、韧性好、坚硬而且耐磨的。刀具的几何形状以刀尖平面和刀具角为特征对于每一种切削工艺都必须是正确的。切削速度是切削刃通过工件表面的速率，它是以每分钟英寸来表示。为了有效地加工，切削速度高低必须适应特定的工件刀具配合。一般来说，工件材料越硬，速度越低。进给速度是刀具切进工件的速度。若工件或刀具作旋转运动，进给量是以每转转过的英寸数目来度量的。当刀具或工件作往复运动时，进给量是以每一行程走过的英寸数度量的。一般来说，在其他条件相同时，进给量与切削速度成反比。吃刀深度以英寸计是刀具进入工件的距离。它等于旋削中的切屑宽度或者等于线性切削中的切屑的厚度。粗加工比起精加工来，吃刀深度较深。切削参数的改变对切削温度的影响 金属切削操作中，热是在主变形区和副变形区发生的。这结果导致复杂的温度分布遍及刀具、工件和切屑。图中显示了一组典型等温曲线，从中可以看出：像所能预料的那样，当工件材料在主变形区被切削时，沿着整个切屑的宽度上有着很大的温度梯度，而当在副变形区，切屑被切落时，切屑附近的前刀面上就有更高的温度。这导致了前刀面和切屑离切削刃很近的地方切削温度较高。实质上由于在金属切削中所做的全部功能都被转化为热，那就可以预料：被切离金属的单位体积功率消耗曾家的这些因素就将使切削温度升高。这样刀具前角的增加而所有其他参数不变时，将使切离金属的单位体积所耗功率减小，因而切削温度也将降低。当考虑到未变形切屑厚度增加和切削速度，这情形就更是复杂。未变形切屑厚度的增加趋势必导致通过工件的热的总数上产生比例效应，刀具和切屑仍保持着固定的比例，而切削温度变化倾向于降低。然而切削速度的增加，传导到工件上的热的数量减少而这又增加主变形区中的切屑温升。进而副变形区势必更小，这将在该区内产生升温效应。其他切削参数的变化，实质上对于被切离的单位体积消耗上并没有什么影响，因此实际上对切削温度没有什么作 马棚网用。因为事实已经表明：切削温度即使有小小的变化对刀具磨损率都将有实质意义的影响作用。这表明如何人从切削参数来确定切削温度那是很合适的。 为着测定高速钢刀具温度的最直接和最精确的方法是W&T法，这方法也就是可提供高速钢刀具温度分布的详细信息的方法。该项技术是建立在高速钢刀具截面金相显微测试基础上，目的是要建立显微结构变化与热变化规律图线关系式。当要加工广泛的工件材料时，Trent已经论述过测定高速钢刀具的切削温度及温度分布的方法。这项技术由于利用电子显微扫描技术已经进一步发展，目的是要研究将已回过火和各种马氏体结构的高速钢再回火引起的微观显微结构变化情况。这项技术亦用于研究高速钢单点车刀和麻花钻的温度分布。刀具磨损 从已经被处理过的无数脆裂和刃口裂纹的刀具中可知，刀具磨损基本上有三种形式：后刀面磨损，前刀面磨损和V型凹口磨损。后刀面磨损既发生在主刀刃上也发生副刀刃上。关于主刀刃，因其担负切除大部金属切屑任务，这就导致增加切削力和提高切削温度，如果听任而不加以检查处理，那可能导致刀具和工件发生振动且使有效切削的条件可能不再存在。关于副刀刃，那是决定着工件的尺寸和表面光洁度的，后刀面磨损可能造成尺寸不合格的产品而且表面光洁度也差。在大多数实际切削条件下，由于主前刀面先于副前刀面磨损，磨损到达足够大时，刀具将实效，结果是制成不合格零件。由于刀具表面上的应力分布不均匀，切屑和前刀面之间滑动接触区应力，在滑动接触区的起始处最大，而在接触区的尾部为零，这样磨蚀性磨损在这个区域发生了。这是因为在切削卡住区附近比刀刃附近发生更严重的磨损，而刀刃附近因切屑与前刀面失去接触而磨损较轻。这结果离切削刃一定距离处的前刀面上形成麻点凹坑，这些通常被认为是前刀面的磨损。通常情况下，这磨损横断面是圆弧形的。在许多情况中和对于实际的切削状况而言，前刀面磨损比起后刀面磨损要轻，因此后刀面磨损更普遍地作为刀具失效的尺度标志。然而因许多作者已经表示过的那样在增加切削速度情况下，前刀面上的温度比后刀面上的温度升得更快，而且又因任何形式的磨损率实质上是受到温度变化的重大影响。因此前刀面的磨损通常在高速切削时发生的。刀具的主后刀面磨损带的尾部是跟未加工过的工件表面相接触，因此后刀面磨损比沿着磨损带末端处更为明显，那是最普通的。这是因为局部效应，这像未加工表面上的已硬化层，这效应是由前面的切削引起的工件硬化造成的。不只是切削，还有像氧化皮，刀刃产生的局部高温也都会引起这种效应。这种局部磨损通常称作为凹坑性磨损，而且偶尔是非常严重的。尽管凹坑的出现对刀具的切削性质无实质意义的影响，但凹坑常常逐渐变深，如果切削在继续进行的话，那么刀具就存在断裂的危机。如果任何进行性形式 的磨损任由继续发展，最终磨损速率明显地增加而刀具将会有摧毁性失效破坏，即刀具将不能再用作切削，造成工件报废，那算是好的，严重的可造成机床破坏。对于各种硬质合金刀具和对于各种类型的磨损，在发生严重失效前，就认为已达到刀具的使用寿命周期的终点。然而对于各种高速钢刀具，其磨损是属于非均匀性磨损，已经发现：当其磨损允许连续甚至到严重失效开始，最有意义的是该刀具可以获得重磨使用，当然，在实际上，切削时间远比使用到失效的时间短。以下几种现象之一均是刀具严重失效开始的特征：最普遍的是切削力突然增加，在工件上出现烧损环纹和噪音严重增加等。自动夹具设计 用做装配设备的传统同步夹具把零件移动到夹具中心上，以确保零件从传送机上或从设备盘上取出后置于已定位置上。然而在某些应用场合、强制零件移动到中心线上时，可能引起零件或设备破坏。当零件易损. 马棚网而且小小振动可能导致报废时，或当其位置是由机床主轴或模具来具体时，再或者当公差要求很精密时，那宁可让夹具去适应零件位置，而不是相反。为着这些工作任务，美国俄亥俄州Elyria的Zaytran公司已经开发了一般性功能数据的非同步西类柔顺性夹具。因为夹具作用力和同步化装置是各自独立的，该同步装置可以用精密的滑移装置来替换而不影响夹具作用力。夹具规格范围是从0.2英寸行程，5英镑夹紧力到6英寸行程、400英寸夹紧力。 现代生产的特征是批量变得越来越小而产品的各种规格变化最大。因此，生产的最后阶段，装配因生产计划、批量和产品设计的变更而显得特别脆弱。这种情形正迫使许多公司更多地致力于广泛的合理化改革和前面提到过情况那样装配自动化。尽管柔性夹具的发展很快落后与柔性运输处理装置的发展，如落后于工业机器人的发展，但仍然试图指望增加夹具的柔顺性。事实上夹具的重要的装置生产装置的专向投资就加强了使夹具更加柔性化在经济上的支持。根据它们柔顺性，夹具可以分为：专用夹具、组合夹具、标准夹具、高柔性夹具。柔性夹具是以它们对不同工件的高适应性和以少更换低费用为特征的。结构形式可变换的柔性夹具装有可变更结构排列的零件（例如针形颊板，多片式零件和片状颊板），标准工件的非专用夹持或夹紧元件（例如：启动标准夹持夹具和带有可移动元件的夹具配套件），或者装有陶瓷或硬化了的中介物质（如：流动粒子床夹具和热夹具紧夹具）。为了生产，零件要在夹具中被紧固，需要产生夹紧作用，其有几个与夹具柔顺性无关的步骤：根据被加工的即基础的部分和工作特点，确定工件在夹具中的所需的位置，接着必须选择若干稳定平面的组合，这些稳定平面就构成工件被固定在夹具中确定位置上的夹持状轮廓结构，均衡所有各力和力矩，而且保证接近工件工作特点。最后，必须计算、调整、组装可拆装的或标准夹具元件的所需位置，以便使工件牢牢地被夹紧在夹具中。依据这样的程序，夹具的轮廓结构和装合的规划和记录过程可以进行自动化控制。结构造型任务就是要产生若干稳定平面的组合，这样在这些平面上的各夹紧力将使工件和夹具稳定。按惯例，这个任务可用人机对话即几乎完全自动化的方式来完成。一人机对话即以自动化方式确定夹具结构造型的优点是可以有组织有规划进行夹具设计，减少所需的设计人员，缩短研究周期和能更好地配置工作条件。简言之，可成功地达到显著提高夹具生产效率和效益。在充分准备了构造方案和一批材料情况下，在完成首次组装可以成功实现节约时间达60%。因此夹具机构造型过程的目的是产生合适的编程文件。GEAR AND SHAFT INTRODUCTIONGEAR AND SHAFT INTRODUCTIONAbstract: The important position of the wheel gear and shaft cant falter in traditional machine and modern machines. The wheel gear and shafts mainly install the direction that delivers the dint at the principal axis box. The passing to process to make them can is divided into many model numbers, useding for many situations respectively. So we must be the multilayers to the understanding of the wheel gear and shaft in many ways .Key words: Wheel gear; ShaftIn the force analysis of spur gears, the forces are assumed to act in a single plane. We shall study gears in which the forces have three dimensions. The reason for this, in the case of helical gears, is that the teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation. And in the case of bevel gears, the rotational axes are not parallel to each other. There are also other reasons, as we shall learn.Helical gears are used to transmit motion between parallel shafts. The helix angle is the same on each gear, but one gear must have a right-hand helix and the other a left-hand helix. The shape of the tooth is an involute helicoid. If a piece of paper cut in the shape of a parallelogram is wrapped around a cylinder, the angular edge of the paper becomes a helix. If we unwind this paper, each point on the angular edge generates an involute curve. The surface obtained when every point on the edge generates an involute is called an involute helicoid.The initial contact of spur-gear teeth is a line extending all the way across the face of the tooth. The initial contact of helical gear teeth is a point, which changes into a line as the teeth come into more engagement. In spur gears the line of contact is parallel to the axis of the rotation; in helical gears, the line is diagonal across the face of the tooth. It is this gradual of the teeth and the smooth transfer of load from one tooth to another, which give helical gears the ability to transmit heavy loads at high speeds. Helical gears subject the shaft bearings to both radial and thrust loads. When the thrust loads become high or are objectionable for other reasons, it may be desirable to use double helical gears. A double helical gear (herringbone) is equivalent to two helical gears of opposite hand, mounted side by side on the same shaft. They develop opposite thrust reactions and thus cancel out the thrust load. When two or more single helical gears are mounted on the same shaft, the hand of the gears should be selected so as to produce the minimum thrust load.Crossed-helical, or spiral, gears are those in which the shaft centerlines are neither parallel nor intersecting. The teeth of crossed-helical fears have point contact with each other, which changes to line contact as the gears wear in. For this reason they will carry out very small loads and are mainly for instrumental applications, and are definitely not recommended for use in the transmission of power. There is on difference between a crossed helical gear and a helical gear until they are mounted in mesh with each other. They are manufactured in the same way. A pair of meshed crossed helical gears usually have the same hand; that is ,a right-hand driver goes with a right-hand driven. In the design of crossed-helical gears, the minimum sliding velocity is obtained when the helix angle are equal. However, when the helix angle are not equal, the gear with the larger helix angle should be used as the driver if both gears have the same hand. Worm gears are similar to crossed helical gears. The pinion or worm has a small number of teeth, usually one to four, and since they completely wrap around the pitch cylinder they are called threads. Its mating gear is called a worm gear, which is not a true helical gear. A worm and worm gear are used to provide a high angular-velocity reduction between nonintersecting shafts which are usually at right angle. The worm gear is not a helical gear because its face is made concave to fit the curvature of the worm in order to provide line contact instead of point contact. However, a disadvantage of worm gearing is the high sliding velocities across the teeth, the same as with crossed helical gears.Worm gearing are either single or double enveloping. A single-enveloping gearing is one in which the gear wraps around or partially encloses the worm. A gearing in which each element partially encloses the other is, of course, a double-enveloping worm gearing. The important difference between the two is that area contact exists between the teeth of double-enveloping gears while only line contact between those of single-enveloping gears. The worm and worm gear of a set have the same hand of helix as for crossed helical gears, but the helix angles are usually quite different. The helix angle on the worm is generally quite large, and that on the gear very small. Because of this, it is usual to specify the lead angle on the worm, which is the complement of the worm helix angle, and the helix angle on the gear; the two angles are equal for a 90-deg. Shaft angle.When gears are to be used to transmit motion between intersecting shaft, some of bevel gear is required. Although bevel gear are usually made for a shaft angle of 90 deg. They may be produced for almost any shaft angle. The teeth may be cast, milled, or generated. Only the generated teeth may be classed as accurate. In a typical bevel gear mounting, one of the gear is often mounted outboard of the bearing. This means that shaft deflection can be more pronounced and have a greater effect on the contact of teeth. Another difficulty, which occurs in predicting the stress in bevel-gear teeth, is the fact the teeth are tapered. Straight bevel gears are easy to design and simple to manufacture and give very good results in service if they are mounted accurately and positively. As in the case of squr gears, however, they become noisy at higher values of the pitch-line velocity. In these cases it is often go 马棚网od design practice to go to the spiral bevel gear, which is the bevel counterpart of the helical gear. As in the case of helical gears, spiral bevel gears give a much smoother tooth action than straight bevel gears, and hence are useful where high speed are encountered. It is frequently desirable, as in the case of automotive differential applications, to have gearing similar to bevel gears but with the shaft offset. Such gears are called hypoid gears because their pitch surfaces are hyperboloids of revolution. The tooth action between such gears is a combination of rolling and sliding along a straight line and has much in common with that of worm gears.A shaft is a rotating or stationary member, usually of circular cross section, having mounted upon it such elementsas gears, pulleys, flywheels, cranks, sprockets, and other power-transmission elements. Shaft may be subjected to bending, tension, compression, or torsional loads, acting singly or in combination with one another. When they are combined, one may expect to find both static and fatigue strength to be important design considerations, since a single shaft may be subjected to static stresses, completely reversed, and repeated stresses, all acting at the same time.The word “shaft” covers numerous variations, such as axles and spindles. Anaxle is a shaft, wither stationary or rotating, nor subjected to torsion load. A shirt rotating shaft is often called a spindle.When either the lateral or the torsional deflection of a shaft must be held to close limits, the shaft must be sized on the basis of deflection before analyzing the stresses. The reason for this is that, if the shaft is made stiff enough so that the deflection is not too large, it is probable that the resulting stresses will be safe. But by no means should the designer assume that they are safe; it is almost always necessary to calculate them so that he knows they are within acceptable limits. Whenever possible, the power-transmission elements, such as gears or pullets, should be located close to the supporting bearings, This reduces the bending moment, and hence the deflection and bending stress.Although the von Mises-Hencky-Goodman method is difficult to use in design of shaft, it probably comes closest to predicting actual failure. Thus it is a good way of checking a shaft that has already been designed or of discovering why a particular shaft has failed in service. Furthermore, there are a considerable number of shaft-design problems in which the dimension are pretty well limited by other considerations, such as rigidity, and it is only necessary for the designer to discover something about the fillet sizes, heat-treatment, and surface finish and whether or not shot peening is necessary in order to achieve the required life and reliability.Because of the similarity of their functions, clutches and brakes are treated together. In a simplified dynamic representation of a friction clutch, or brake, two in 马棚网ertias I1 and I2 traveling at the respective angular velocities W1 and W2, one of which may be zero in the case of brake, are to be brought to the same speed by engaging the clutch or brake. Slippage occurs because the two elements are running at different speeds and energy is dissipated during actuation, resulting in a temperature rise. In analyzing the performance of these devices we shall be interested in the actuating force, the torque transmitted, the energy loss and the temperature rise. The torque transmitted is related to the actuating force, the coefficient of friction, and the geometry of the clutch or brake. This is problem in static, which will have to be studied separately for eath geometric configuration. However, temperature rise is related to energy loss and can be studied without regard to the type of brake or clutch because the geometry of interest is the heat-dissipating surfaces. The various types of clutches and brakes may be classified as fllows: 1. Rim type with internally expanding shoes2. Rim type with externally contracting shoes3. Band type4. Disk or axial type5. Cone type6. Miscellaneous typeThe analysis of all type of friction clutches and brakes use the same general procedure. The following step are necessary: 1. Assume or determine the distribution of pressure on the frictional surfaces.2. Find a relation between the maximum pressure and the pressure at any point3. Apply the condition of statical equilibrium to find (a) the actuating force, (b) the torque, and (c) the support reactions.Miscellaneous clutches include several types, such as the positive-contact clutches, overload-release clutches, overrunning clutches, magnetic fluid clutches, and others.A positive-contact clutch consists of a shift lever and two jaws. The greatest differences between the various types of positive clutches are concerned with the design of the jaws. To provide a longer period of time for shift action during engagement, the jaws may be ratchet-shaped, or gear-tooth-shaped. Sometimes a great many teeth or jaws are used, and they may be cut either circumferentially, so that they engage by cylindrical mating, or on the faces of the mating elements.Although positive clutches are not used to the extent of the frictional-contact type, they do have important applications where synchronous operation is required.Devices such as linear drives or motor-operated screw drivers must run to definite limit and then come to a stop. An overload-release type of clutch is required for these applications. These clutches are usually spring-loaded so as to release at a predetermined toque. The clicking sound which is heard when the overload point is reached is considered to be a desirable signal.An overrunning clutch or coupling permits the driven member of a machine to “freewheel” or “overrun” because the driver is stopped or because another source of power increase the speed of the driven. This 马棚网type of clutch usually uses rollers or balls mounted between an outer sleeve and an inner member having flats machined around the periphery. Driving action is obtained by wedging the rollers between the sleeve and the flats. The clutch is therefore equivalent to a pawl and ratchet with an infinite number of teeth. Magnetic fluid clutch or brake is a relatively new development which has two parallel magnetic plates. Between these plates is a lubricated magnetic powder mixture. An electromagnetic coil is inserted somewhere in the magnetic circuit. By varying the excitation to this coil, the shearing strength of the magnetic fluid mixture may be accurately controlled. Thus any condition from a full slip to a frozen lockup may be obtained.Introduction of MachiningHave a shape as a processing method, all machining process for the production of the most commonly used and most important method. Machining process is a process generated shape, in this process, Drivers device on the workpiece material to be in the form of chip removal. Although in some occasions, the workpiece under no circumstances, the use of mobile equipment to the processing, However, the majority of the machining is not only supporting the workpiece also supporting tools and equipment to complete.Machining know the process has two aspects. Small group of low-cost production. For casting, forging and machining pressure, every production of a specific shape of the workpiece, even a spare parts, almost have to spend the high cost of processing. Welding to rely on the shape of the structure, to a large extent, depend on effective in the form of raw materials. In general, through the use of expensive equipment and without special processing conditions, can be almost any type of raw materials, mechanical processing to convert the raw materials processed into the arbitrary shape of the structure, as long as the external dimensions large enough, it is possible. Because of a production of spare parts, even when the parts and structure of the production batch sizes are suitable for the original casting, Forging or pressure processing to produce, but usually prefer machining.Strict precision and good surface finish, Machining the second purpose is the establishment of the high precision and surface finish possible on the basis of. Many parts, if any other means of production belonging to the large-scale production, Well Machining is a low-tolerance and can meet the requirements of small batch production. Besides, many parts on the production and processing of coarse process to improve its general shape of the surface. It is only necessary precision and choose only the surface machining. For instance, thread, in addition to mechanical processing, almost no other processing method for processing. Another example is the blacksmith pieces keyhole processing, as well as training to be conducted immediately after the mechanical completion of the processing.Primary Cutting ParametersCutting the work piece and tool based on the basic relationship between the following four elements to fully describe : the tool geometry, cutting speed, feed rate, depth and penetration of a cutting tool.Cutting Tools must be of a suitable material to manufacture, it must be strong, tough, hard and wear-resistant. Tool geometry - to the tip plane and cutter angle characteristics - for each cutting process must be correct.Cutting speed is the cutting edge of work piece surface rate, it is inches per minute to show. In order to effectively processing, and cutting speed must adapt to the level of specific parts - with knives. Generally, the more hard work piece material, the lower the rate.Progressive Tool to speed iscut into the work piece speed. If the work piece or tool for rotating movement, feed rate per round over the number of inches to the measurement. When the work piece or tool for reciprocating movement and feed rate on each trip through the measurement of inches. Generally, in other conditions, feed rate and cutting speed is inversely proportional to。 Depth of penetration of a cutting tool - to inches dollars - is the tool to the work piece distance. Rotary cutting it to the chip or equal to the width of the linear cutting chip thickness. Rough than finishing, deeper penetration of a cutting tool depth.Wears of Cutting ToolWe already have been processed and the rattle of the countless cracks edge tool, we learn that tool wear are basically three forms : flank wear, the former flank wear and V-Notch wear. Flank wear occurred in both the main blade occurred vice blade. On the main blade, shoulder removed because most metal chip mandate, which resulted in an increase cutting force and cutting temperature increase, If not allowed to check, That could lead to the work piece and the tool vibration and provide for efficient cutting conditions may no longer exist. Vice-bladed on, it is determined work piece dimensions and surface finish. Flank wear size of the possible failure of the product and surface finish are also inferior. In most actual cutting conditions, as the principal in the former first deputy flank before flank wear, wear arrival enough, Tool will be effective, the results are made unqualified parts.As Tool stress on the surface uneven, chip and flank before sliding contact zone between stress, in sliding contact the start of the largest, and in contact with the tail of zero, so abrasive wear in the region occurred. This is because the card cutting edge than the nearby settlements near the more serious wear, and bladed chip due to the vicinity of the former flank and lost contact wear lighter. This results from a certain distance from the cutting edge of the surface formed before the knife point Ma pit, which is usually considered before wear. Under normal circumstances, this is wear cross-sectional shape of an arc. In many instances and for the actual cutting conditions, the former flank wear compared to flank wear light, Therefore flank wear more generally as a tool failure of scale signs. But because many authors have said in the cutting speed of the increase, Maeto surface temperature than the knife surface temperatures have risen faster. but because any form of wear rate is essentially temperature changes by the significant impact. Therefore, the former usually wear in high-speed cutting happen.The main tool flank wear the tail is not processed with the work piece surface in contact, Therefore flank wear than wear along with the ends more visible, which is the most common. This is because the local effect, which is as rough on the surface has hardened layer, This effect is by cutting in front of the hardening of the work piece. Not just cutting, and as oxidation skin, the blade local high temperature will also cause this effect. This partial wear normally referred to as pit sexual wear, but occasionally it is very serious. Despite the emergence of the pits on the Cutting Tool nature is not meaningful impact, but often pits gradually become darker If cutting continued the case, then there cutter fracture crisis. If any form of sexual allowed to wear, eventually wear rate increase obviously will be a tool to destroy failure destruction, that will no longer tool for cutting, cause the work piece scrapped, it is good, can cause serious damage machine. For various carbide cutting tools and for the various types of wear, in the event of a serious lapse, on the tool that has reached the end of the life cycle. But for various high-speed steel cutting tools and wear belonging to the non-uniformity of wear, has been found : When the wear and even to allow for a serious lapse, the most meaningful is that the tool can re-mill use, of course, In practice, cutting the time to use than the short time lapse. Several phenomena are one tool serious lapse began features : the most common is the sudden increase cutting force, appeared on the work piece burning ring patterns and an increase in noise.The Effect of Changes in Cutting Parameters on Cutting TemperaturesIn metal cutting operations heat is generated in the primary and secondary deformation zones and this results in a complex temperature distribution throughout the tool, workpiece and chip. A typical set of isotherms is shown in figure where it can be seen that, as could be expected, there is a very large temperature gradient throughout the width of the chip as the workpiece material is sheared in primary deformation and there is a further large temperature in the chip adjacent to the face as the chip is sheared in secondary deformation. This leads to a maximum cutting temperature a short distance up the face from the cutting edge and a small distance into the chip.Since virtually all the work done in metal cutting is converted into heat, it could be expected that factors which increase the power consumed per unit volume of metal removed will increase the cutting temperature. Thus an increase in the rake angle, all other parameters remaining constant, will reduce the power per unit volume of metal removed and cutting temperatures will reduce. When considering increase in undeformed chip thickness and cutting speed the situation is more comples. An increase in undeformed chip thickness and cutting speed the situation is more complex. An increase in undeformed chip thickness tends to be a scale effect where the amounts of heat which pass to the workpiece, the tool and chip remain in fixed proportions and the changes in cutting temperature tend to be small. Increase in cutting speed, however, reduce the amount of heat which passes into the workpiece and this increase the temperature rise of the chip in primary deformation. Further, the secondary deformation zone tends to be smaller and this has the effect of increasing the temperatures in this zone. Other changes in cutting parameters have virtually no effect on the power consumed per unit volume of metal removed and consequently have virtually no effect on the power consumed per unit volume of metal removed and consequently have virtually no effect on the cutting temperatures. Since it has been shown that even small changes in cutting temperature have a significant effect on tool wear rate, it is appropriate to indicate how cutting temperatures can be assessed from cutting data. The most direct and accurate method for measuring temperatures in high-speed-steel cutting tools is that of Wright&Trent which also yields detailed information on temperature distributions in high-speed-steel tools which relates microstructural changes to thermal history.Trent has described measurements of cutting temperatures and temperature distributions for high-speed-steel tools when machining a wide range of workpiece materials. This technique has been further developed by using scanning electron microscopy to study fine-scale microstructural changes srising from over tempering of the tempered martensitic matrix of various high-speed-steels. This technique has also been used to study temperature distributions in both high-speed-steel single point turning tools and twist drills.A