建筑物的组成及高层结构造价专业毕业

ComponentsofABuildingandTallBuildingsMaterialsandstructuralformsarecombinedtomakeupthevariouspartsofabuilding,includingtheload-carryingframe,skin,floors,andpartitions.Thebuildingalsohasmechanicalandelectricalsystems,suchaselevators,heatingandcoolingsystems,andlightingsystems.Thesuperstructureisthatpartofabuildingaboveground,andthesubstructureandfoundationisthatpartofabuildingbelowground.Theskyscraperowesitsexistencetotwodevelopmentsofthe19thcentury:steelskeletonconstructionandthepassengerelevator.SteelasaconstructionmaterialdatesfromtheintroductionoftheBessemerconverterin1885.GustaveEiffel(1832-1932)introducedsteelconstructioninFrance.HisdesignsfortheGaleriedesMachinesandtheTowerfortheParisExpositionof1889expressedthelightnessofthesteelframework.TheEiffelTower,984feet(300meters)high,wasthetalleststructurebuiltbymanandwasnotsurpasseduntil40yearslaterbyaseriesofAmericanskyscrapers.ThefirstelevatorwasinstalledbyElishaOtisinstalledthefirstelevatorinadepartmentstoreinNewYorkin1857.In1889;EiffelinstalledthefirstelevatorsonagrandscaleintheEiffelTower,whosehydraulicelevatorscouldtransport2,350passengerstothesummiteveryhour.Load-CarryingFrame.Untilthelate19thcentury,theexteriorwallsofabuildingwereusedasbearingwallstosupportthefloors.Thisconstructionisessentiallyapostandlinteltype,anditisstillusedinframeconstructionforhouses.Bearing-wallconstructionlimitedtheheightofbuildingsbecauseoftheenormouswallthicknessrequired；Forinstance,the16-storyMonadnockBuildingbuiltinthe1880’sinChicagohadwalls5feet(1.5meters)thickatthelowerfloors.In1883,WilliamLeBaronJenney(1832-1907)supportedfloorsoncast-ironcolumnstoformacage-likeconstruction.Skeletonconstruction,consistingofsteelbeamsandcolumns,wasfirstusedin1889.Asaconsequenceofskeletonconstruction,theenclosingwallsbecomea“curtainwall”ratherthanservingasupportingfunction.Masonrywasthecurtainwallmaterialuntilthe1930’s,whenlightmetalandglasscurtainwallswereused.Aftertheintroductionofbuildingscontinuedtoincreaserapidly.AlltallbuildingswerebuiltwithaskeletonofsteeluntilWorldWarⅡ.Afterthewar,theshortageofsteelandtheimprovedqualityofconcreteledtotallbuildingbeingbuiltofreinforcedconcrete.MarinaTower(1962)inChicagoisthetallestconcretebuildingintheUnitedStates；Itsheight—588feet(179meters)—isexceededbythe650-foot(198-meter)PostOfficeTowerinLondonandbyothertowers.Achangeinattitudeaboutskyscraperconstructionhasbroughtareturntotheuseofthebearingwall.InNewYorkCity,theColumbiaBroadcastingSystemBuilding,designedbyEeroSaarinenin1962,hasaperimeterwallconsistingof5-foot(1.5meter)wideconcretecolumnsspaced10feet(3meters)fromcolumncentertocenter.Thisperimeterwall,ineffect,constitutesabearingwall.Onereasonforthistrendisthatstiffnessagainsttheactionofwindcanbeeconomicallyobtainedbyusingthewallsofthebuildingasatube；theWorldTradeCenterbuildingisanotherexampleofthistubeapproach.Incontrast,rigidframesorverticaltrussesareusuallyprovidedtogivelateralstability.毁S闭k佳i察n散.饱伯乎T每h糕e诱隔s赖k勾i杂n补袖o猎f馅匙a摧火b贵u评i旺l盼d酒i哑n汇g篮招c做o俯n话s打i厦s居t彼s唱粘o案f帐绵b细o甜t修h鸡监t汤r芝a尿n扬s袭p惠a敬r飘e慰n晴t拖骨e百l赚e垄m乡e怖n佣t奋s危烟(忠w届i摩n搬d练o缸w萝s小)挖丘a娘n墨d棚废o荐p躁a盖q磨u膛e破笼e吊l粥e垄m珠e肌n年t骡s堤蜂(幅w旬a余l受l校s挨)诊.赖球W惨i佳n谁d纠o离w祥s凤附a业r快e雁牢t示r度a持d瓦i撕t亏i身o售n永a旱l双l陪y艳猜g雨l凡a代s昨s粗,惠屯a仅l咬t牙h惜o他u隙g特h汪辛p变l上a括s挺t洒i弯c状s哄予a拣r史e煎得b更e卷i诚n运g钢状u构s核e尝d识,村庸e毙s瓦p符e逃c小i抽a轰l借l港y畏砍i白n握赤s倡c轮h难o撑o见l刃s塔疼w哀h梁e利r冬e全踪b滩r召e输a竖k洽a抓g渗e匠途c帆r千e味a立t宰e呢s惯帆a陵纱m流a求i旱n聋t刺e塔n趁a醋n奔c合e矿浸p之r娘o甚b冷l访e芬m秩.替由T睛h摆e翅货w沈a赌l惠l偿避e掏l们e截m召e裕n河t羊s劲,犯央w尿h迟i候c糟h贡叛a诉r伏e傻斧u奇s玻e坚d格隶t顺o资弦c巾o项v缘e功r财德t伍h绒e妄纷s湿t松r容u恢c诸t鼓u非r叙e刮段a之n采d脱涂a塌r颠e撞裙s烟u丛p承p难o淋r强t强e维d滴递b锁y赢罚i苏t缝,扎筐a剪r果e穷冷b腰u球i隔l负t念肝o填f羽殖a做队v霉a旁r裂i仙e柜t粉y归也o道f慧混m友a肾t穿e罩r灶i豆a膀l括s捏:互溜b钞r项i关c绩k拥,番想p桑r距e推c理a优s浊t图饼c早o题n秃c奉r胀e寻t趁e苦,槐钻s便t弄o有n烂e碧,哄郊o孝p贴a亿q阻u求e快滨g备l炎a木s铜s灭,解稻p升l四a诚s搭t割i榴c懂s呜,股便s渠t话e匀e把l走,余堂a询n隐d埋刑a捎l茫u豪m撇i晴n危u闲m症.真伴W龙o冶o悄d偏肃i刻s村取u杜s慰e构d引研m丽a虫i兄n灭l娘y化钳i默n吗争h倘o绪u胞s牌e蠢企c因o演n栗s垫t蝴r糖u艳c夸t尿i愈o纯n驳；庙嫁I婆t望范i稼s惭碧n躺o拐t护芽g犬e坊n斗e隔r晴a井l纷l略y穿欲u邪s做e北d鱼屈f霜o忆r仓店c慈o妥m衰m收e红r夫c怖i植a街l叛,宫韵i泛n烫d扇u游s爸t颜r倡i羊a梅l厨,恐撕o烈r出揭p刚u发b棒l迎i茧c鹊钻b置u腿i榆l唉d开i殃n邀g第外b弟e钥c担a呜u钟s芬e很纪o伯f食辟t才h散e件促f喘i报r钩e兔侮h遭a稍z车a扯r恒d早.苏F统l报o榆o妈r膛s希.侍还导引T章h绿e量面c做o缘n绕s茎t津r鞋u悼c马t轨i劫o惹n舟村o杠f智辈t补h秘e斯惠f贤l他o史o膀r昏s凭絮i耀n屿看a篇蓝b俊u著i悦l划d蹦i宫n魂g难卫d榴e拔p播e西n昆d站s均更o奋n说聋t射h灵e先的b燥a除s照i周c航塔s歉t柄r负u缠c施t歇u带r反a灰l裙玩f郊r兄a食m临e龙响t彻h琴a哑t绵叫i趟s灰趁u木s耕e永d关.朴贫I似n龙市s刷t厨e开e秩l倍泄s萍k籍e线l重e游t昏o势n做骨c名o描n伯s姻t袭r碌u咐c里t尽i施o光n这,当仍f蚕l构o帆o厦r泡s把影a串r仿e类坦e各i脑t指h讲e苗r忧企s谦l针a花b梅s盘责o禁f狮烦c淋o肚n惹c吃r悉e碰t胸e跨掏r会e捧s种t绝i粗n券g依缴o输n骆往s乞t螺e耍e即l宏上b及e屑a挡m元s拢鸦o粱r厦梯a递恼d狭e守c盗k勺荣c亦o喊n配s要i缘s佛t漠i成n液g留取o怖f帮挎c需o规r悟r聚u恩g疲a其t榆e艘d邻瞒s性t万e迟e蚀l猫追w腾i悲t拾h姑肢a笋鞋c愿o称n纸c煮r舅e忘t竟e塘她t雀o樱p火p坚i萄n爱g喘.煤贼I羊n纪泳c插o嗓n抚c碧r皱e暮t正e岔脊c尘o睛n季s满t贿r苏u挠c芹t临i吸o冒n凯,并愁t狱h屈e帜衫f蝶l劝o电o载r估s霞嫂a类r属e寄霸e昌i练t坛h抗e贫r根厘s界l唉a司b格s槐辨o壮f政许c体o诊n斜c躺r缠e糟t垄e状矩o夫n猜枝c嫂o追n第c傲r陈e弄t瓶e辱袖b射e咽a铃m星s直贤o斑r束孩a汇即s逐e滑r齿i助e宵s心巡o士f王路c谢l感o尽s漫e稍l踪y暗循s学p史a星c中e厅d氧觉c贫o丰n孕c鞭r垂e舌t茅e傻锹b删e悔a要m破s座偶(完r吉i舰b菊s村)井翻i竿n挥奇t压w昏o毁覆d扭i碍r种e稀c湾t词i联o贷n老s拳载t北o鼠p宇p驼e体d张巾w抚i改t轧h爽溪a疫肃t货h排i喇n秤皮c亡o盒n沸c期r召e啄t歌e绵晒s絮l王a钓b街,叛拒g浴i剂v能i究n以g柱吓t边h诊e趁松a捐p波p都e经a虫r喊a槐n嫩c朵e植猛o灶f赖领a坦绪w肉a拉f党f裤l水e冒裹o壤n剩痛i殊t昨s户米u食n贞d办e膨r驻s丽i差d惨e旨.倡远T摇h露e当递k形i待n毁d济弯o取f倍持f就l责o口o烘r外汗t担h房a厉t践朵i算s舍秒u刮s积e摆d系咱d趟e手p谊e些n骂d莲s令耀o同n及说t摆h国e驻闻s险p轰a凶n白蛛b李e动t涌w置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studiesthatmadeitpossibletomakeaccuratepredictionsofthebehavioroffoundations,usingthescienceofsoilmechanicscoupledwithexplorationandtestingprocedures.Foundationfailuresofthepast,suchastheclassicalexampleoftheleaningtowerinPisa,havebecomealmostnonexistent.Foundationsstillareahiddenbutcostlypartofmanybuildings.Althoughtherehavebeenmanyadvancementsinbuildingconstructiontechnologyingeneral,spectacularachievementshavebeenmadeinthedesignandconstructionofultrahigh-risebuildings.Theearlydevelopmentofhigh-risebuildingsbeganwithstructuralsteelframing.Reinforcedconcreteandstressed-skintubesystemshavesincebeeneconomicallyandcompetitivelyusedinanumberofstructuresforbothresidentialandcommercialpurposes.Thehigh-risebuildingsrangingfrom50to110storiesthatarebeingbuiltallovertheUnitedStatesaretheresultofinnovationsanddevelopmentofnewstructuralsystems.Greaterheightentailsincreasedcolumnandbeamsizestomakebuildingsmorerigidsothatunderwindloadtheywillnotswaybeyondanacceptablelimit.Excessivelateralswaymaycauseseriousrecurringdamagetopartitions,ceilings,andotherarchitecturaldetails.Inaddition,excessiveswaymaycausediscomforttotheoccupantsofthebuildingbecauseoftheirperceptionofsuchmotion.Structuralsystemsofreinforcedconcrete,aswellassteel,takefulladvantageoftheinherentpotentialstiffnessofthetotalbuildingandthereforedonotrequireadditionalstiffeningtolimitthesway.Inasteelstructure,forexample,theeconomycanbedefinedintermsofthetotalaveragequantityofsteelpersquarefootoffloorareaofthebuilding.Thegapbetweentheupperboundaryandthelowerboundaryrepresentsthepremiumforalllateralloads.Thegapbetweentheupperboundaryandthelowerboundaryrepresentsthepremiumforheightforthetraditionalcolumn-and-beamframe.Structuralengineershavedevelopedstructuralsystemswithaviewtoeliminatingthispremium.Systemsinsteel.Tallbuildingsinsteeldevelopedasaresultofseveraltypesofstructuralinnovations.Theinnovationshavebeenappliedtotheconstructionofbothofficeandapartmentbuildings.Frameswithrigidbelttrusses.Inordertotietheexteriorcolumnsofaframestructuretotheinteriorverticaltrusses,asystemofrigidbelttrussesatmid-heightandatthetopofthebuildingmaybeused.AgoodexampleofthissystemistheFirstWisconsinBankBuilding(1974)inMilwaukee.Framedtube.Themaximumefficiencyofthetotalstructureofatallbuilding,forbothstrengthandstiffness,toresistwindloadcanbeachievedonlyifallcolumnelementscanbeconnectedtoeachotherinsuchawaythattheentirebuildingactsasahollowtubeorrigidboxinprojectingoutoftheground.Thisparticularstructuralsystemwasprobablyusedforthefirsttimeinthe43-storyreinforcedconcreteDeWittChestnutApartmentBuildinginChicago.Themostsignificantuseofthissystemisinthetwinstructuralsteeltowersofthe110-storyWorldTradeCenterbuildinginNewYork.Column-diagonaltrusstube.Theexteriorcolumnsofabuildingcanbespacedreasonablyfarapartandyetbemadetoworktogetherasatubebyconnectingthemwithdiagonalmembersintersectingatthecenterlineofthecolumnsandbeams.ThissimpleyetextremelyefficientsystemwasusedforthefirsttimeontheJohnHancockCenterinChicago,usingasmuchsteelasisnormallyneededforatraditional40-storybuilding.Bundledtube.Withthecontinuingneedforlargerandtallerbuildings,theframedtubeorthecolumn-diagonaltrusstubemaybeusedinabundledformtocreatelargertubeenvelopeswhilemaintaininghighefficiency.The110-storySearsRoebuckHeadquartersBuildinginChicagohasninetubes,bundledatthebaseofthebuildinginthreerows.Someoftheseindividualtubesterminateatdifferentheightsofthebuilding,demonstratingtheunlimitedarchitecturalpossibilitiesofthislateststructuralconcept.TheSearstower,ataheightof1450ft(442m),istheworld’stallestbuilding.Stressed-skintubesystem.Thetubestructuralsystemwasdevelopedforimprovingtheresistancetolateralforces(windorearthquake)andthecontrolofdrift(lateralbuildingmovement)inhigh-risebuilding.Thestressed-skintubetakesthetubesystemastepfurther.Thedevelopmentofthestressed-skintubeutilizesthefacadeofthebuildingasastructuralelementwhichactswithactswiththeframedtube,thusprovidinganefficientwayofresistinglateralloadsinhigh-risebuildings,andresultingincost-effectivecolumn-freeinteriorspacewithahighratioofnettogrossfloorarea.Becauseofthecontributionofthestressed-skinfacade,theframedmembersofthetuberequirelessmass,andarethuslighterandlessexpansive.Allthetypicalcolumnsandspandrelbeamsarestandardrolledshapes,minimizingtheuseandcostofspecialbuilt-upmembers.Thedepthrequirementfortheperimeterspandrelbeamsisalsoreduced,andtheneedforupsetbeamsabovefloors,whichwouldencroachonvaluablespace,isminimized.Thestructuralsystemhasbeenusedonthe54-storyOneMellonBankCenterinPittsburgh.Systemsinconcrete.Whiletallbuildingsconstructedofsteelhadanearlystart,developmentoftallbuildingsofreinforcedconcreteprogressedatafastenoughratetoprovideacompetitivechallengetostructuralsteelsystemsforbothofficeandapartmentbuildings.Framedtube.Asdiscussedabove,thefirstframedtubeconceptfortallbuildingswasusedforthe43-storyDeWittChestnutApartmentBuilding.Inthisbuilding,exteriorcolumnswerespacedat5.5-ft(1.68-m)centers,andinteriorcolumnswereusedasneededtosupportthe8-in.-thick(20-cm)flat-plateconcreteslabs.Tubeintube.Anothersysteminreinforcedconcreteforofficebuildingscombinesthetraditionalshearwallconstructionwithanexteriorframedtube.Thesystemconsistsofanouterframedtubeofverycloselyspacedcolumnsandaninteriorrigidshearwalltubeenclosingthecentralservicearea.Thesystem(Fig.2),knownasthetube-in-tubesystem,madeitpossibletodesigntheworld’spresenttallest(714ftor218m)lightweightconcretebuilding(the52-storyOneShellPlazaBuildinginHouston)fortheunitpriceofatraditionalshearwallstructureofonly35stories.Systemscombiningbothconcreteandsteelhavealsobeendeveloped,anexampleofwhichisthecompositesystemdevelopedbySkidmore,Owings&Merrillinwhichanexteriorcloselyspacedframedtubeinconcreteenvelopsaninteriorsteelframing,therebycombiningtheadvantagesofbothreinforcedconcreteandstructuralsteelsystems.The52-storyOneShellSquareBuildinginNewOrleansisbasedonthissystem.出处：《土木工程专业英语》，段兵廷主编，武汉理工大学出版社建筑物的组成及高层结构材料和不同的结构形式构成建筑物各种不同部分，包括承重框架、外壳、楼板和隔墙。在建筑物内部还有机械和电气系统，例如电梯、供暖和冷却系统、照明系统等。地面以上的部分是建筑物的上部结构，地面以下部分为建筑物的基础和下部结构。摩天大楼的出现应归功于19世纪的两大发展：钢骨架结构和载人电梯。钢材作为一种建筑材料，是从1855年贝西默炼钢法被首次介绍后开始应用的。古斯塔•艾菲尔（1832~1923）首次将钢结构引入法国。1889年的巴黎国际博览会的塔和他为Galeriedes机械的设计表现了钢结构的灵活性。艾菲尔铁塔高300米，是当时人类建造的最高建筑物，直到40年后才由美国的摩天大楼超过其高度。第一部电梯是1857年ElishaOtis给纽约的一家百货公司所安装的。1889年，艾菲尔在艾菲尔铁塔上安装了第一部大型电梯，它每小时可以运送2350位乘客到达塔顶。承重框架。直到19世纪后期，建筑物的外墙被用做承重墙来支撑楼层，这种结构是本质上是一种梁柱模型，它还被用在框架结构房屋中。因为所需墙体的厚度很大，承重墙结构限制了建筑物的高度；例如，建于19世纪80年代的芝加哥16层高的MonadnockBuilding，在较低的楼层墙体厚度已达到1.5米。1883年，WillianLeBaronJenney（1832~1907）用铸铁柱来支撑楼层的方式以形成笼状结构。在1889年，框架结构首次由钢梁和钢柱构成。由于骨架结构，围墙变成了一种“幕墙”。砖石一直是“幕墙”的主要材料，直到20世纪30年代轻金属和玻璃幕墙的问世为止。自从钢框架首次推出，建筑物的高度一直在迅速增加。在第二次世界大战前，所有的高层建筑都是钢结构。战争结束以后，钢材的缺乏和混凝土质量的改进，促进了钢筋混凝土高层建筑的发展。芝加哥的MarinaTowers（1962）是美国最高的混凝土建筑；它的高度是588英尺即179米，不久以后被伦敦的高达650英尺即198米的邮政大厦和其它的塔所超越。在关于摩天大楼构造观点的改变恢复了承重墙的使用。在纽约，由EeroSaarinen于1962年设计的哥伦比亚广播公司大楼，由1.5米宽，柱与柱的中心间距为3米的混凝土柱组成的环形墙。这种围护墙有效地构成了建筑物的承重墙。这种趋势发展的原因是建筑物的墙作为一个筒体可以非常经济的获得抗风作用的足够强度；世贸大楼是另一个筒体法的例子。相比之下，刚性框架或者垂直的桁架通常用于提供侧向稳定性。外壳。一个建筑的外壳由透明元素（窗户）和不透明元素（墙）组成。窗户采用传统上的玻璃作为材料，尽管塑料正在被使用，特别在学校，破损产生了一个维护问题。用来覆盖结构和起支撑作用墙，它是由各种的建筑材料组成：砖、预制构件、石头、不透明的玻璃、塑料、钢材和铝材。木头是过去建造房屋的主要材料；因为它易着火，因而不常用于商业的、工业的和公共建筑。楼板。一幢建筑的楼地面结构取决于它所使用的基本结构框架。在钢框架建筑中，楼地面或者是钢梁上的混凝土楼板，或者是由波纹钢配有混凝土骨料组成的凹板。在混凝土结构中，楼板或者是混凝土梁上的混凝土楼板或者是一系列紧密分布于混凝土梁在方向上端的薄混凝土楼板，在它的下面提供了一个多余的空寂间。这种类型的板取决于支撑柱之间的距离或者墙间的跨度和空间的功能性。在一栋公寓大楼中，例如，墙和柱间距在3.7米到5.5米，最常见的结构是无梁实心混凝土楼盖。楼盖的下表面可以作为下层空间的天花板。办公大楼中常使用波纹钢地板，这是因为波纹钢地板的波纹当由另一块金属板盖上时，可以形成电话线和电线管道。机械和电力系统。一个现代建筑不仅包括必要使用空间（办公室，教室，公寓）而且也包括机械、电力系统等的辅助空间，以便营造一个舒适的生活环境。这些辅助空间可能占摩天大楼总建筑面积的25%。在一个办公大楼中，供暖、通风、电力和卫生设备系统的预算额占实际建筑总预算额的40%，显示了它们在建筑中的重要性。因为许多建筑是密封的，窗户不能被打开，因而由机械系统提供了通风设备和空气调节设备。新鲜空气从中央换气室由空气调节器用管道输入。通风管和控制照明设备单元由悬挂在上面楼层结构下面的天花板遮住了。提供动力的电力线路和电话通讯线路也可能在天花板里或者也可能在楼地面结构层中的管道或导线管里。我们曾尝试性地把机械、电力系统加入建筑物的建筑学中去。例如在爱荷华州首府的美国共和保险公司大楼，管道和楼地面的结构层有组织的、优美的悬挂在天花板上。这类型的方法使得建筑物的花费尽可能的减少了并且使结构有了创新，例如在结构间距方面。土地和地基。所有的建筑物都是靠土层支撑在地面上的，因而土的特性成为建筑设计时极其重要的考虑因素。基础的设计取决于土的许多因素，例如土的类型，土分层的情况，土层的厚度和它的密实度，以及地下水的情况等。土层很少有一个单一的成分；他们通常是厚度变化的混合状态土层。据评定，土层的等级是根据土分子的大小来划分，从小到大依次是淤泥、粘土、沙、石子、岩石。通常，较大分子的土支撑的荷载要大。最坚硬的岩石能够支撑的荷载大约是每平方米100吨，而最软的淤泥仅能够支撑的荷载大约是每平方米0.25吨。所有地表以下的土都处于受压状态，说得更精确些，这些土承受与作用在其上的土柱重量相等的压力。许多土显示出弹性的性质——在荷载作用下受压变形，当荷载解除后可以回弹。土的弹性常随时间而改变，更精确地说，土层的变形在恒载作用下随着时间的增长而不断地改变。过一段时间后，如果加于土层上的荷载大于土自然压紧状态下的重量，则建筑物会产生