外文翻译---土耳其农村城镇化进程中的环境问题.doc

山东理工大学本科毕业论文Turkey Rural Urbanization in environmental issuesAbstractThis article highlights the government in the process of urbanization in the important role played by institutional, legislative and a series of policies to effectively alleviate or even solved in the process of urbanization in the environmental pollution. The paper also analyzed by using a landscape ecology of a city in Turkey Aydin, hopes to further improve the landscape ecology of urbanization in environmental protection. In addition, to rise public awareness of environmental protection for the public to participate in environmental protection and supervision in the past, the real process of urbanization in the coordinated development of economy and environment.Keywords: Urbanization, Government, Environmental Protection, Public Awareness1. IntroductionUrbanization generates cultural and sociological change. Alteration of lifestyles from rural to urban changes peoples perceptions about their environment and the way they use this environment. Urbanization gradually but profoundly changes spatial patterns and the ecological functioning of the landscape matrix. Urbanized landscapes are highly dynamic, complex, and multifunctional. The institutional environment is critical in shaping patterns of development. This environment consists of formal rules (e.g., property rights, laws, constitutions, international treaties) and informal constraints such as norms of behavior, conventions, and self-imposed codes of conduct, and characteristics of their enforcement.The case study described in the present paper investigated the transformation in land use in the Aydin urban area of western Turkey. Urbanization is encroaching upon the highly fertile agricultural lands and surrounding natural areas, and the social structure of the city is changing as increasing numbers of people arrive from eastern Turkey and rural areas around the city. Understanding these dynamics will help regional planners to develop policies and plans to safeguard the ecology of rural landscapes and promote sound urban planning. This research primarily uses theory and methodology landscape ecology to analyze land use dynamics in the study area. 2. Urbanization in TurkeyIn Turkey, the urbanization rate is higher than in other developing countries, particularly since the 1950s. Between 1960 and 2000, the total population increased from 6.9 million to 44 million, and the proportion of people living in urban areas increased from 25.1% to 65%. Industrialization has played a major role in the development of Turkish cities, particularly given the migration triggered by industrialization. Although agriculture accounts for 40% of employment in Turkey, its share in overall income has fallen progressively, declining from almost 50% of GNP in 1950 to 13% of GNP in 2003. The relatively poor showing of the agricultural sector reflected, in part, government policies that had made rapid industrialization a national priority. Additional factors such as advances in the transportation network have also contributed to these changes. Moreover, Turkish citizens who have lived in other countries generally prefer to live in cities after they return to Turkey. Turkeys national policy towards urbanization and the environment has evolved during this period. There is a direct relationship between urbanization and environmental policy. Development of the necessary policies and legislation has a short history because attention towards environmental problems is relatively new. The 1982 amendment to the Constitution directly addresses the environment. Article 56 says that everyone has a right to live in a healthy and balanced environment, and that it is the duty of the state and its citizens to improve the environment, protect environmental health, and prevent pollution. It affirms that the state directs urbanization within a planning framework that respects the dynamics of cities and environmental conditions. Article 23 limits the freedom of settlement to control urban expansion and promote healthy and reasonable urbanization. This article permits the development of specific laws to address development problems and to effectively manage migration from rural areas to cities. The Turkish Constitution provides a legal basis on which to develop sustainable environmental policy, and much legislation related to urbanization and the environment now exists (e.g., the Environment Law, Forestry Law, Coast Law, Public Works Law). Turkeys environmental policy is also strongly influenced by international commitments such as the European Landscape Agreement. As a member of supranational and regional organizations, Turkey has felt pressure to take measures to protect its environment, and has signed and ratified many environmental treaties since the 1980s.Government bodies implement policies related to urbanization and environment. The involvement of NGOs in environmental issues has increased since the early 1990s, placing increasing pressure on central and local authorities for good governance. Turkeys overall urbanization policy is presented in the periodic 5-year development plans prepared by the State Planning Agency. Urbanization and environmental issues have been included in these plans since the early 1960s. Initial plans did not favor the limitless growth of cities, and promoted the concept of an optimum urban size based on the relationship between development and regional employment opportunities. Later plans (starting in the 1980s) regarded urban development as the outcome of economic, social, and especially industrial development, and suggested that urbanization become an economic stimulus. During this period, articles related to the environment were added to the constitution, and international agreements such as the Barcelona convention for the prevention of terrestrial pollution were signed. The Ministry of the Environment was established during this period. The main planning principles were to promote livable cities and meet the needs of urbanites rather than slowing the urbanization process. Plans created during this period assumed that urbanization was a natural and inevitable result of development and industrialization, and must be managed so as to protect the environment while still contributing to economic development. The development plans of the early 1990s acknowledged some problems related to urbanization, mainly in the area of land resources, infrastructure, housing, education, and health. Special emphasis was placed on the completion of city plans and efficient supervision of development of surrounding rural areas related to these plans. The dramatic migration to urban areas that occurred during this period was recognized, and policies were developed to reduce the rate of migration by the late 1990s. The plans of this period included the economic and physical aspects of urban development, but also the social, esthetic, cultural, and educational aspects. Even though Turkish law mandates the participation of interested groups in decision-making related to environmental issues, there have been limited examples of efficient public participation in the planning process because many citizens do not believe that their opinions will actually be considered by the authorities. Decision-making power for management and planning of urban and surrounding areas has shifted gradually from the central government to the local level since the 1980s. Unfortunately, local governments tend to prioritize economic goals over environmental goals during local development and land use planning. However, centralized decision-making still prevails in the rural landscape. This leaves inadequate space for local initiatives to protect the environment according to the needs of smaller communities. The lack of bureaucratic coordination between the local and central authorities and the lack of relevant and reliable data and analyses undermines management efforts, and there is often confusion over which institution is responsible for various decisions. Therefore, despite the existing body of favorable legislation and the existence of central and local institutions, the principles, rules, and regulations are in disarray, and the authority gap has yet to be filled for environmental issues. Wasilewski and Krukowski (2004) state that environmentally sound urban planning will only take place in the presence of mechanisms that safeguard environmental interests. Such mechanisms include a role for governments and programs to raise public awareness of the need to preserve valuable landscapes. In addition, collaboration between urban planners, landscape architects, ecologists, and other experts is limited because of a lack of appreciation for the benefits of multidisciplinary cooperation. Bureaucracy also plays a major role in undermining collaboration both among different professions and between government institutions. As a result of these problems, unsustainable development of the landscape matrix prevails, in the form of rapid, sprawling, and uncontrolled urbanization, leading to social and economic problems. Especially in recent years, the spread of commercial and residential uses of land from inner urban areas to surrounding areas has become common, as has the development of slums and a higher rate of population increase in the surrounding areas, where more land is available. A substantial amount of prime agricultural land is being transformed into different land uses, but local communities do not consider this withdrawal of land from agricultural production to be responsible for the loss of rural landscape. Although no official statistics exist on the rate of agricultural land conversion in Turkey, some research reveals the general trend: urbanization occurs at the expense of agricultural land and decreases the per capita amount of arable land that remains. This can cause agricultural expansion into wetlands and other ecologically valuable areas or unsustainable intensification of agriculture to increase food production in the remaining land. Turkeys national policy for agriculture is to develop an organized sector with a high competitiveness that holistically considers the economic, social, environmental, and international aspects of agriculture, within the framework of efficient resource use, to supply food to a growing population while ensuring food security. Major highlights of this policy include increased production levels and crop yield, increased agricultural income, rural development, protection of natural resources, and sustainable agriculture. 3. Land Use Trends During Urbanization of the City of Aydin, TurkeyTurkey has experienced rapid social, economic, and environmental change since 1980. The objective of economic growth without considering sustainability shows signs of causing serious changes in rural landscapes if measures are not taken soon to implement sustainable development. The 1980s and 1990s also witnessed a growing interest in environmental issues as a result of Turkeys commitment to international treaties. The central decision-making process pertaining to the environment has greatly benefited from and been shaped by international environmental trends since Turkey signed and ratified many environmental treaties during the past several decades. Generating legislation is not sufficient to attain national environmental goals. The government must also ensure that the purpose of this legislation is met to ensure that the environment can withstand the negative effects of constantly changing and conflicting policies. The case study of the City of Aydin offers a good example of the impact of national policies on land use dynamics at local landscape scale. Landscape ecology is important for planning because it explicitly pays attention to spatial patterns and processes, offers theory and empirical evidence that help planners understand and compare different spatial configurations of land uses. This also predicts the ecological consequences of plans, allowing planners to generate more realistic and comprehensive solutions. As a result of industrialization, the Aydin districts experienced the greatest population increases. However, the inevitable consequence of this trend is urban sprawl. Urban sprawl is the disorderly and unregulated expansion of housing, industrial, and commercial development in and beyond the periphery of metropolitan areas. According to Tregoing and others (2002), sprawl consumes precious open space and spoils the landscape with ugly development. However, unlike in northern Europe, America, and other larger metropolitan areas in Turkey, this process didnt begin to accelerate in the study area until the past decade. Overall, the trend for the landscape matrix of the study area has been outward expansion of urban areas, with the most rapid changes occurring at the fringes of the urban area. However, this growth had not occurred in a simple concentric form, but instead was discontinuous, especially in the Aydin districts, with the formation of separate patches of urban development in the peri-urban areas and along the major highways. This is a common trend not only in Turkish cities but in Mediterranean European cities such as Barcelona. Consequently, maintaining sustainable agriculture becomes an issue in this context. Sustainable agriculture means agriculture that conserves land, water, and plant and animal genetic resources, does not degrade the environment, and is economically viable and socially acceptable. A variety of public policies and programs, such as zoning, use value assessment, purchasing or transferring development rights, and purchasing conservation easements, could protect these rural landscapes. Furthermore, no comprehensive plan exists to mitigate the negative consequences of transformations in land use at a landscape scale for all urban areas. Currently, each municipality produces their own individual plans. With different plans operating for different municipalities, achieving consistency and integration is impossible. Therefore, a comprehensive plan should be generated to integrate the efforts of the different communities. It is particularly noteworthy that despite the expansion of urban areas in the study area, natural areas have not diminished greatly. Some small developments along the southern part of the study area have expanded at the expense of the natural landscape, but increases in agricultural land use have had a larger impact on natural areas. The establishment of protected natural spaces is necessary to prevent this form of development from encroaching on these areas, and connection of the natural systems in the north and south with a wider ecological network, including the urban open spaces and agricultural patches, will become increasingly necessary. The competition among these different demands being placed on the landscape requires the development of comprehensive plans that include measures to contain urbanization and protect agricultural and natural landscapes.4. ConclusionsThis study examined the land use dynamics accompanying urbanization in the City of Aydin between 1986 and 2002. A landscape ecology approach provided a holistic description of the landscape-scale relationships involved in these changes. The institutional environment has shaped the land use patterns in Turkish landscapes, with current government policies leading to unsustainable urban growth in the City of Aydin. Industrialization is playing a significant role in the development of the study area by altering the social and economic structures and changing the spatial patterns. Industrial areas are experiencing the greatest change, followed by mining sites. The significant increases in these important economic activities calls for larger-scale development plans that will balance economic and environmental goals. The expansion of urban development is equally noteworthy, because urban areas are growing mostly at the expense of agricultural land. Even though the magnitude of the loss of agricultural land is less than in other areas of Turkey, monitoring of the change would help planners to mitigate the consequences of unsustainable urbanization. Due to their location, urbanized areas are not currently producing strong pressure on natural habitats; however, a considerable amount of natural land has been converted into agricultural and mining sites. Compared to other areas of Turkey, though, the overall land use transformation is not striking because of the relatively recent history of urbanization and industrialization. Nevertheless, the negative consequences of these changes may accelerate in the future if a strategy to control development and conversion of land use is not developed and implemented. Therefore, ecologically and economically sound development should become a primary part of the local agenda to mitigate the negative consequences of the urbanization process at the landscape scale. Traditional management strategies should be shifted towards the inclusion of the larger landscape context to improve the collaboration among different municipalities during the development of comprehensive plans. Decisions should account for the landscapes spatial and temporal attributes, but should also address all major institutional, environmental, and human issues present in the landscape. As in most countries, the implementation of environmental policy poses many challenges, and it will be difficult to generate management scenarios that satisfy all stakeholders simultaneously. However, environmental management is a matter of good governance, and developing countries such as Turkey can overcome some of their limitations by improving their institutional environments so as to balance economic development with sustainable