道路交通安全——英汉对照.doc

道路交通安全主要内容：汽车碰撞。道路安全旨在减少由机动车辆碰撞造成的伤害（死亡、受伤、财产损失）。道路交通事故造成的伤害比其他所有运输方式（航运、海运、空间等）都要严重。道路交通安全研究的重点在于如何减少道路交通事故以及降低道路交通事故所产生的后果的严重性。一起道路交通碰撞是一个涉及了造成公路及车辆伤害的事件。其原因在于收集数据时，只能包括受损的车辆，而一个人在道路中摔倒而导致的严重后果则不被认为是交通事故致命。受害人必须被车辆撞击而导致身体伤害才能被视为交通事故。背景道路交通事故是世界上最大的公众健康和受伤的问题。这个问题一直是更敏锐，因为受害者撞车事故之前是无比健康的。根据世界卫生组织统计，全世界每年有超过一万人死于交通事故。用于评估道路安全措施的标准主要有事故率、事故死亡人数，通常还用亿车公里死亡人数。在美国，每英里的百万车辆事故数通常用于评价道路安全。速度是现代公路的设计的一个关键目标，但是受速度的严重影响，居住者和行人都到了受伤。当地居民Joksch(1993)发现司机在事故中死亡的概率随着第四的速度(通常是指影响数学术语，意思变化的速度)的增加而递增。突然的加速(或减速)造成的严重伤害，这是难以测量。然而，再次碰撞技术可以用来评估之前的车辆速度碰撞。因此，这一速度变化作为加速度替代。干预有多种形式。对公路事故成因可能是司机(如驾驶失误，疾病和疲劳)，车辆(制动、方向盘、或节流失败)或道路本身(缺乏眼前的距离，可怜的路边清晰的区域，等等)。干预力图减少或赔偿这些因素，或者减轻发生的事故的后果。一个全面的干预大纲可以道路交通安全管理系统中发现。道路设计在附近的道路上有许多脆弱的道路使用者，如行人和骑自行车的人，可以发现，交通纾缓措施可以作为实现道路安全一种工具。主要依靠人类本能和相互作用，如眼神接触的共享空间的方案，由于它们的有效性，除去传统的交通信号和标志，甚至消除马路和人行道的区别，也变得越来越受欢迎。这两种方法都可以被证明是有效的。附近的道路，外面设计特征旨在提高机动车的安全和移动性。这些特征来增加成本，费用包括货币数量、用于减少或劝阻使用非机动车出行的旅客以及增加美感。在另一端的领域，从附近的道路是高速公路，这可能是高速公路、州际公路或者其他国家的名字。高速公路的最佳设计特点是限制驶入的机会，减小冲突，提供最安全的旅行和更好的燃油经济性，以及拥有更高的平均速度。道路设计特点一种方法是在一些高速公路的危险路段设置专用安全引导标志。高速公路上需要有更好的曲线倾斜以减少牵引力增加车辆的稳定性。大多数道路被弯曲，于是他们有圆形的表面，以减少站在冰和水，主要是为了防止冰霜伤害但也增加了在恶劣天气的牵引力。一些路正在用浮出水面的多孔沥青来加强排水;这里特别需要进行弯曲。这些都只是高速公路工程的几个要素。现代安全护栏旨在吸收冲击能量和降低道路使用者、旁观者的风险。例如，大多数围栏正锚定到地上，所以他们不能刺穿乘客车厢，最轻杆是为了打破在该基地，而不是猛烈地停止一辆撞击他们的车辆。有些道路装置，如路标和消防栓是为了缓冲撞击。公路当局已经砍掉了邻近地区的道路上的树，而提出的“危险的树”吸引了不少的怀质疑，诸如树永这种不可原谅的物体而引起严重的伤害，伤害到任何误入的道路使用者。路边视线的清晰度的重要性的例子，可以在英国一个小岛TT摩托车赛道上找到。它比银石赛道更危险，因为缺乏，当骑手慢慢地从银石赛道摔下来时的幻灯片，因此失去能量最小伤害。当他落在Manx他影响的树木和墙壁。同样，一个清晰的区域和高速公路或其他高速公路可以防止越野旅行变成固定对象的撞车事故。一些在美国有影响高山上的高速公路护栏，旨在逐渐吸收衰减器的动能汽车和缓慢的更轻击结束前的护栏，将破坏性的。很多机制是用来释动能。一个系统障碍、装满沙子的桶，采用动量传递来自车辆的沙子。许多其他系统撕开或变形钢构件中吸收能量并逐渐停止。路交叉口危害，在某些地区，现在通常标明了好几次，大约五、六十秒，所以司机不太可能尝试暴力的策略。大多数的路标和路面材料，标志采用向后反射的小玻璃球或棱镜来更有效地从车前灯的光反射回司机的眼睛。道路标记在一些国家和美国都用明亮反光的Cats eyes或者Botts dots，不要萎谢了喜欢画画。Botts点不使用它，因为冬天结冰霜，能打破胶水，为机场提供它们的路，虽然他们可以被埋在短，浅浅的壕沟雕刻在路旁，如在山区的加利福尼亚。在一些国家主要道路”音调乐队”的印象的边缘或者切成块，这样的法律巷道架上司机大声嗡嗡惊醒了他们的转向，释放了边缘的路。调带也被称为“带”，由于他们创造的声音。另一种方法是使用“提高”标记，包括肋的连续划线，用在定期的线。他们第一次特别授权的使用范围边划线隔开边缘的隔离带从主车道。这个目标是为了达到改善的标志视觉的行车道边在潮湿的条件在夜晚。它还提供了一声/振动警报，汽车司机，他们就偏离了车道，跑到这个标记。美国已经开发出一种原型自动化，以减少疲劳驾驶巷道和提高承载能力的道路。路边的单位参加未来无线通信网络的车辆安全性进行了研究。有争议的电机的方式已经大堂主宰道路安全议程。有些道路安全的人士使用术语“道路安全”(引用)来描述等措施的“危险”的树木和强制隔离的脆弱的机动车辆的优势。东正教”道路安全”观点未能解决亚当斯描述为世界顶级的风险的认知和态度温控器，道路使用者社群。高速公路高速公路(叫做北美高速公路)有最高的设计标准为快速、安全、燃油效率。提高高速公路的安全性可以通过以下措施:，禁止更易受伤害的道路使用者使用高速公路；禁止缓慢的车辆驶入，从而降低速度变化及潜在的同向行驶；通过中央分隔带来分离逆向行驶的交通流来减少潜在的逆向碰撞；分离交通取代交叉口，从而减少潜在的立交、最脆弱的一面的影响车辆(也负责一些最严重的创伤性脑损伤)。去除路边障碍。虽然这些道路可能比大多数的道路经历更多的严重性，由于更高的速度在碰撞，某一碰撞降低去除互动，传球，慢(路口交通)，并与反对碰撞严重降低或消除大规模、固定物体周围能量衰减设备(如护栏、宽领域、沙桶)的草地上。这些机制在下面的表格中提供比其他的道路较低的每车公里死亡率。国家亿车公里死亡人数 (高速公路)亿车公里死亡人数 (非高速公路)高速公路 年平均日交通量高速公路出行率km/h (mph) 高速公路极限车速奥地利5.913.430，07723%130 (80)捷克9.934.325，71411%130 (80)丹麦3.011.929，45425%130 (80)芬兰1.48.322，78010%120 (75)法国4.012.831，97921%130 (80)德国3.812.448，71031%none(130 (80) advisory)爱尔兰7.411.026，7304%120 (75)日本4.011.926，1529%100 (60)新西兰2.111.766，73441%120 (75)斯洛文尼亚8.118.715，64319%130 (80)瑞典2.59.924，18321%110 (70)瑞士2.811.843，64133%120 (75)英国2.09.385，53623%110 (70)美国5.210.739，63424%120 (75)定义:AADT年平均每日交通量。高速公路比普通公路建设是非常昂贵的，而且占用空间大，所以只作为主要动脉的路线。在发达国家，高速公路的一个重要部分承担机动旅游，例如，英国的3533公里的高速公路不到2003年英国的道路的1.5%，但是承担了23%的交通量。高速公路交通安全性是这个比例的一项重要因素。例如，尽管英国比芬兰在高速公路和非高速公路都有较高的死亡率，但是两国在2003年的总体死亡率却持平。这个结果是由于英国的更高比例的高速公路旅行。改进的安全性和经济性建设更多高速公路常见的原因。然而，计划通行能力通常是在更短的时间超过最初计划，因为低估了道路出行的需求量。在发展中国家，有明显的公开讨论的请求继续投资于高速公路。世界各地的高速公路都受到广泛的速度范围。最近的实验和可变限速自动测量基础上的交通流量将改善交通流量，既减少碰撞率的基本原理，结合湍流流动进行分析。自2005年1月，主要是基于安全理由，英国的高速公路管理局的政策，所有新的高速公路的计划是使用高密度的中央分隔带。所有现存的高速公路将介绍水泥路障中央分隔带的一部分，通过不断升级的替代者，当这些系统已经达到了他们最后的使用寿命。该政策的变动仅适用于贸易壁垒的中央储备的高速公路和不边缘边的障碍。其他的道路将会继续使用钢的护栏。路面设计简易的路面施工可能导致安全问题。如果过多的沥青混合料沥青混凝土的粘结剂用于、粘结剂的流血”或“表面齐平，留下一个表面非常光滑，没有牵引力当湿。某些种类的石头变成非常光滑或抛光料不变的条件下对汽车的轮胎，穿着作用又导致贫穷雨胎牵引。这些问题可以增加制动距离的增加雨胎事故或导致失去控制。如果路面坡度或较差的不足，静水表面上也能导致雨胎坠毁由于滑行。车辆的安全特性通过减少安全可以改进的机会做出了错误的车手，或藉由设计工具来减轻症状的发生的事故。大多数工业化国家有全面的要求和规格的汽车设备、系统、相关设计、施工。这些可能包括:乘客的限制，如安全带通常结合法律要求他们使用-和安全气囊；避免撞车的设备，如灯光、反光；驾驶辅助系统，如电子稳定控制；撞车幸存的设计，室内材料防火标准体系完整、燃料和使用安全玻璃；酒精检测器:这些连锁装置防止点火的关键工作如果司机呼吸进人还能探测到大量的酒精。他们已经在一些商业运输公司、或建议用持续强调罪犯在自愿的基础上。针对驾驶员对策安全可以改善的方法，鼓励安全的行为，或减少驾驶失误的机会。这些包括:强制性培训和授权；禁止酒后驾车；禁止在驾驶中使用手机；强制保险赔偿；限制商用客车的连续驾驶时间；加强交通监控措施。针对新手驾驶员的策略年轻而又没有经验的驾驶员由于缺乏经验、过度自信、想炫耀、或是身体发育迟缓等原因而更更容易发生交通事故。已经注意到这些情况更多的发生在车辆超载或使用安全带较少的夜晚。这导致了一些保险公司和立法建议：“宵禁”强加给年轻的司机来防止他们在夜间开车；一位经验丰富的司机主管缺乏经验的司机；禁止超员；禁止酒后驾车；提高驾校的要求标准和提高驾驶员的驾驶测试；车辆的限制(例如限制访问到的高性能的车辆)；在车后放一个新手标志以提醒其他驾驶员；有差别的鼓励良好的驾驶行为。某些国家或州已经实施了一些这样的想法。这种风险增加了年轻的保险公司，和溢价有时反映;然而，非常高的溢价，年轻司机不似乎都有显著影响碰撞的统计数字。这些(土著)语言中有些已经反对干预(见不安全的汽车制造商在任何速度)或由司机，或由学者认为，由于风险补偿效果的一些措施，可以降低道路的整体安全。雇主们目前逃过一劫，绝大部分责任链为其雇员的驾驶。卡车司机，尤其是个体的，可以得到不切实际的期限。有运动带来驾车上班(两商用车辆，更有争议的是，私家车推动公司业务)的保护伞下工作场所安全立法。这些是强烈的抵抗，因为他们将放一个更大的负担雇主和雇员一样:处罚工业安全违规通常比为过失机动车辆使用。其他道路使用者行人和骑自行车的人是最脆弱的道路使用者，并在一些国家占一半的交通死亡事故。旨在改善普通道路使用者的安全的干预措施：隔离设施，如循环的小巷，过节天桥等；物理隔离设施；禁止行人步行进入高速公路；推广骑自行车带头盔活动；推广提高交通安全意识的活动，例如由希尔曼写道的“一不小心”活动，等；行人通道，这被看作是在道路划线制约点的数目，常常要走弯路。交通稳静化和速度驼峰；降低城市速度限制；通过自动化的手段严格执行限速，如测速仪。道路安全的广告世界各地的道路交通部门发动广告来说服驱动车辆安全运行。例子包括:超速行驶。没有人赞同你的大胆。(澳大利亚新南威尔士，2007年)道路安全不是偶然的世界卫生组织。批评行人的倡导者、环保团体和相关机构，如RoadPeace一直强烈批评他们以增加机动车辆通过的限制视为解决这一威胁到脆弱的道路使用者问题的办法，原因是他们认为都谴责受害者和未能解决这一问题的源头。罗伯特戴维斯在书中死在街上详细讨论了汽车和神话的道路安全的核心问题。这是由于一些道路安全的问题在很大程度上是错误的，因为大多数道路安全措施方面是为了提高司机的安全性，但很多道路交通伤亡不是司机(在英国只有40%的伤亡人数是司机)，这些可以增加驱动安全性措施，通过对这些其他补偿增加了其他的风险。Road traffic safetyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaMain article: Motor vehicle collisionsRoad safety aims to reduce the harm (deaths, injuries, and property damage) resulting from motor vehicle collisions. Harm from road traffic crashes is greater than that from all other transportation modes (air, sea, space, etc.) combined.Road traffic safety deals exclusively with road traffic crashes how to reduce their number and their consequences. A road traffic crash is an event involving a road vehicle that results in harm. For reasons of clear data collection, only harm involving a road vehicle is included. A person tripping with fatal consequences on a public road is not included as a road-traffic fatality. To be counted a pedestrian fatality, the victim must be struck by a road vehicle.BackgroundRoad traffic crashes are one of the worlds largest public health and injury prevention problems. The problem is all the more acute because the victims are overwhelmingly healthy prior to their crashes. According to the World Health Organization more than a million people are killed on the worlds roads each year.1.The standard measures used in assessing road safety interventions are fatalities and Killed or Seriously Injured (KSI) rates, usually per billion (109) passenger kilometres. In the United States, crashes per million vehicle miles is typically used for road safety.Speed is a key goal of modern road design, but impact speed affects the severity of injury to both occupants and pedestrians. For occupants, Joksch (1993) found the probability of death for drivers in multi-vehicle accidents increased as the fourth power of impact speed (often referred to by the mathematical term v (delta V), meaning change in velocity). Injuries are caused by sudden, severe acceleration (or deceleration), this is difficult to measure. However, crash reconstruction techniques can be used to estimate vehicle speeds before a crash. Therefore, the change in speed is used as a surrogate for acceleration.Interventions take many forms. Contributing factors to highway crashes may be related to the driver (such as driver error, illness or fatigue), the vehicle (brake, steering, or throttle failures) or the road itself (lack of sight distance, poor roadside clear zones, etc). Interventions may seek to reduce or compensate for these factors, or reduce the severity of crashes that do occur. A comprehensive outline of interventions areas can be seen in Management systems for road safety.Road designOn neighborhood roads where many vulnerable road users, such as pedestrians and bicyclists can be found, traffic calming can be a tool for road safety. Shared space schemes, which rely on human instincts and interactions, such as eye contact, for their effectiveness, and are characterised by the removal of traditional traffic signals and signs, and even by the removal of the distinction between carriageway (roadway) and footway (sidewalk), are also becoming increasingly popular. Both approaches can be shown to be effective.Outside neighborhood roads, design features are added to increase motorized safety and mobility. These features come at increasing costs; costs which include monetary amounts, decreased or discouraged usage by non-motorized travelers, as well as aesthetics. At the other end of the spectrum from neighborhood roads are motorways, which may be called freeways, limited access highways, Autobahnen, Interstates or other national names. Motorways have the best engineered road features, limited access and minimise opportunities for conflict so are typically the safest roads per mile travelled and offer better fuel economy despite higher average speeds.Road design featuresOne method is to post special safety signage on the most dangerous highways.Better motorways are banked on curves in order to reduce the need for tire-traction and increase stability for vehicles with high centers of gravity. Most roads are cambered (crowned), that is, made so that they have rounded surfaces, to reduce standing water and ice, primarily to prevent frost damage but also increasing traction in poor weather. Some sections of road are now surfaced with porous bitumen to enhance drainage; this is particularly done on bends. These are just a few elements of highway engineering.Modern safety barriers are designed to absorb impact energy and minimize the risk to the occupants of cars, and bystanders. For example, most side rails are now anchored to the ground, so that they cannot skewer a passenger compartment, and most light poles are designed to break at the base rather than violently stop a car that hits them. Some road fixtures such as road signs and fire hydrants are designed to collapse on impact. Highway authorities have also removed trees in the vicinity of roads; while the idea of dangerous trees has attracted a certain amount of skepticism, unforgiving objects such as trees can cause severe damage and injury to any errant road users.An example of the importance of roadside clear zones can be found on the Isle of Man TT motorcycle race course. It is much more dangerous than Silverstone because of the lack of runoff. When a rider falls off at Silverstone he slides along slowly losing energy, so minimal injuries. When he falls of in the Manx he impacts with trees and walls. Similarly, a clear zone alongside a freeway or other high speed road can prevent off-road excursions from becoming fixed-object crashes.The ends of some guard rails on high-speed highways in the United States are protected with impact attenuators, designed to gradually absorb the kinetic energy of a vehicle and slow it more gently before it can strike the end of the guard rail head on, which would be devastating at high speed. Several mechanisms are used to dissipate the kinetic energy. Fitch Barriers, a system of sand-filled barrels, uses momentum transfer from the vehicle to the sand. Many other systems tear or deform steel members to absorb energy and gradually stop the vehicle.Road hazards and intersections in some areas are now usually marked several times, roughly five, twenty and sixty seconds in advance so that drivers are less likely to attempt violent manoeuvres.Most road signs and pavement marking materials are retro-reflective, incorporating small glass spheres or prisms to more efficiently reflect light from vehicle headlights back to the drivers eyes.Lane markers in some countries and states are marked with Cats eyes or Botts dots, bright reflectors that do not fade like paint. Botts dots are not used where it is icy in the winter, because frost and snowplows can break the glue that holds them to the road, although they can be embedded in short, shallow trenches carved in the roadway, as is done in the mountainous regions of California.In some countries major roads have tone bands impressed or cut into the edges of the legal roadway, so that drowsing drivers are awakened by a loud hum as they release the steering and drift off the edge of the road. Tone bands are also referred to as rumble strips, owing to the sound they create. An alternative method is the use of Raised Rib markings, which consists of a continuous line marking with ribs across the line at regular intervals. They were first specially authorised for use on motorways as an edge line marking to separate the edge of the hard shoulder from the main carriageway. The objective of the marking is to achieve improved visual delineation of the carriageway edge in wet conditions at night. It also provides an audible/vibratory warning to vehicle drivers, should they stray from the carriageway, and run onto the marking.The U.S. has developed a prototype automated roadway, to reduce driver fatigue and increase the carrying capacity of the roadway. Roadside units participating in future Wireless vehicle safety communications networks have been studied.There is some controversy over the way that the motor lobby has been seen to dominate the road safety agenda. Some road safety activists use the term road safety (in quotes) to describe measures such as removal of dangerous trees and forced segregation of the vulnerable to the advantage of motorized traffic. Orthodox road safety opinion fails to address what Adams describes as the top half of the risk thermostat, the perceptions and attitudes of the road user community.MotorwayMotorways (called freeways in North America) have the highest design standards for speed, safety and fuel efficiency. Motorways improve safety by: prohibiting more vulnerable road users prohibiting slow-moving vehicles, thus reducing speed variation and potential v for same-direction travel segregating opposing traffic flows with median dividers or crash barriers, thus reducing potential v for opposite-direction collisions separating crossing traffic by replacing intersections with interchanges, thus reducing potential v into the side, most vulnerable vehicle section (side impacts are also responsible for some of the most serious traumatic brain injuries) removing roadside obstacles.Although these roads may experience greater severity than most roads to due higher speeds in the event of a crash, the probability of a crash is reduced by removing interactions (crossing, passing, slower and opposing traffic), and crash severity is reduced by removing massive, fixed objects or surrounding them with energy attenuation devices (e.g. guardrails, wide grassy areas, sand barrels). These mechanisms deliver lower fatalities per vehicle-kilometer of travel than other roadways, as documented in the following table.CountryKilled per 1 Billion Vehkm (Motorways in 2003)Killed per 1 Billion Vehkm (Non-Motorways in 2003)Motorway AADTRoad Travel by Motorwaykm/h (mph) Motorway 2003 Speed LimitAustria5.913.430,07723%130 (80)Czech Republic9.934.325,71411%130 (80)Denmark3.011.929,45425%130 (80)Finland1.48.322,78010%120 (75)France4.012.831,97921%130 (80)Germany3.812.448,71031%none(130 (80) advisory)Ireland7.411.026,7304%120 (75)Japan4.011.926,1529%100 (60)Netherlands2.111.766,73441%120 (75)Slovenia8.118.715,64319%130 (80)Sweden2.59.924,18321%110 (70)Switzerland2.811.843,64133%120 (75)United Kingdom2.09.385,53623%110 (70)United States5.210.739,63424%120 (75)definition: AADT - average annual daily traffic.Motorways are far more expensive and space-consumptive to build than ordinary roads, so are only used as principal arterial routes. In developed nations, motorways bear a significant portion of motorized travel; for example, the United Kingdoms 3533km of motorways represented less than 1.5% of the United Kingdoms roadways in 2003, but carry 23% of road traffic.The proportion of traffic borne by motorways is a significant safety factor. For example, even though the United Kingdom had a higher fatality rates on both motorways and non-motorways than Finland, both nations shared the same overall fatality rate in 2003. This result was due to the United Kingdoms higher proportion of motorway travel.The improved safety and fuel economy of motorways are common justifications for building more motorways. However, the planned capacity of motorways is often exceeded in a shorter timeframe than initially planned, due to the under estimation of the extent of the suppressed demand for road travel. In developing nations, there is significant public debate on the desirability of continued investment in motorways.Motorways around the world are subject to a broad range of speed limits. Recent experiments with variable speed limits based on automatic measurements of traffic density have delivered both improvements in traffic flow and reduced collision rates, based on principles of turbulent flow analysis.citation neededWith effect from January 2005 and based primarily on safety grounds, the UKs Highways Agencys policy is that all new motorway schemes are to use high containment concrete step barriers in the central reserve. All existing motorways will introduce concrete barriers into the central reserve as part of ongoing upgrades and through replacement as and when these systems have reached the end of their usefu