Analysis of Rhetorical Devices in Inaugural Addresses of American Presidents 英语专业毕业论文.doc

美国总统就职演说中的修辞分析 analysis of rhetorical devices in inaugural addresses of american presidents abstract american presidential inauguration is a solemn occasion which requires a formal speech. on the inauguration day, each president will deliver his inaugural address to express his political views and win the audiences support. inaugural address is characterized by its clear viewpoints, refined language and persuasiveness. like other speeches, inaugural address is abundent in rhetorical devices. these rhetorical devices play an important role in american presidential addresses. this paper classifies english rhetoric into three categories: lexical stylistic devices, syntactical stylistic devices and phonetic stylistic devices from perspective of linguistics. based on this classification, it analyzes rhetorical devices employed in inaugural addresses. this paper also makes a thorough analysis of simile, metaphor, parallelism, antithesis, allusion and alliteration etc. in obamas inaugural address. it is hoped that this paper will provide profound insights into inaugural addresses by means of rhetoric. though analysis, the use of rhetorical devices can make inaugural address acceptable. key words: inaugural address; rhetorical devices; metaphor; parallelism; allusion 摘 要 每任新总统上任都要发表就职演说，其目的在于表明自己的政治立场，鼓舞听众， 打动人心，赢得支持。总统就职演说以其鲜明的观点，雅致的语言，强大的雄辩力和 深刻的洞察力，令人精神振奋，鼓舞人心。修辞存在于各种演讲当中，尤其是在美国 总统就职演讲中，更是起着极其重要的作用，是影响就职演说成败的关键。本文从语 言学角度，将英语中的修辞手段分为词汇修辞格、句法修辞格和语音修辞格三类，认 真研究主要修辞手段在就职演说中的作用，包括明喻、暗喻、排比、对偶、典故、头 韵等等，并以奥巴马在就职演说中的精彩语言为例，来体现修辞的生动和耐人寻味， 使读者运用所学的修辞手法更深刻地理解总统就职演说。 关键词：关键词：就职演说；修辞手法；暗喻；排比；典故 i i contents i. introduction.1 ii. an introduction of rhetoric and inauguaral address.3 2.1 an introduction of rhetoric3 2.1.1 lexical stylistic devices.3 2.1.2 syntactical stylistic devices.4 2.1.3 phonetic stylistic devices.4 2.2 an introduction of inaugural address.4 iii. rhetorical devices in inaugural address . 6 3.1 lexical stylistic devices6 3.1.1 metaphor. .6 3.1.2 metonymy.6 3.1.3 synecdoche7 3.1.4 hyperbole.7 3.1.5 simile7 3.2 syntactical stylistic devices8 3.2.1 parallelism.8 3.2.2 antithesis.9 3.2.3 repetition9 3.3 phonetic stylistic devices.10 3.3.1 alliteration10 iv. the analysis of rhetoric in obamas inaugural address.12 4.1 an introduction of barack obama12 4.2 analysis of rhetoric in obamas inaugural address13 4.2.1 simile13 4.2.2 metaphor.13 4.2.3 metonymy.14 4.2.4 parallelism.15 4.2.5 repetition16 4.2.6 antithesis.16 4.2.7 alliteration.17 4.2.8 allusion18 v. conclusion20 bibliography.21 acknowledgements22 appendix.23 1 1 i. introduction the inaugural address is a special speech given by the president. the purpose of inaugural address is to express his view of politics, to arouse the enthusiasm of the audiences, and to win their support. languages in inaugural address should be used properly. the inaugural address is usually prepared meticulously with all kinds of rhetorical devices. that makes the speech more vivid and more accurate. rhetorical devoices are ways of making our language figurative. that is why rhetoric is one kind of important expressive devices widely used in inaugural address. domestically, many people have studied the inaugural address in different aspects. tang shuhua（2007）has written a paper about the wide use of parallelism in president bushs inaugural address. zhang jian (2007) analyses metaphors in inaugural address of bill clinton and george w. bush. they show us the charming languages and rich rhetorical devices in different inaugural address. studying the speeches of the presidents will not only benefit our english studying and teaching, but also provide us with an efficient access to the wells of wisdom of the western culture. therefore, this paper will first classify the rhetorical devices into three types: lexical, syntactic and phonetic rhetorical devices from linguistic angle. based on the classification, the rhetorical devices in some inaugural addresses will be analyzed, especially the inaugural address of obama. newly elected united states president barack obama is the first african-origin president in american history. obamas rhetorical skills and abilities to captivate and inspire audience with his powerful speeches have led some people to describe him as the greatest orator of his generation. in the process of his rocket-speed political rise, nothing can be more important than his remarkable communicative ability and oration skills. obamas speeches make the most of the substance and delivery to achieve wonderful effects with clear viewpoint, refined language, powerful eloquence and deep insight. his chief strengths lie in his facility with words, his reasoning skills, his youthful cool image etc. therefore, studying his address in various situations is a best way to know about the career of this outstanding political leader, his communicative skill and personalities. the whole paper is concerned about the use of rhetoric in americans inaugural address, and the paper is divided into five parts. the first part tells about the introduction of rhetoric and inaugural speech. the second part illustrates the definition and function of main rhetoric. the third part analyzes the rhetorical devices used in american presidents inaugural address. the fourth part makes a study on the use of main rhetorical devices in obamas inaugural address, such as, simile, metaphor, parallelism, alliteration, repetition, 2 2 antithesis, allusion and so on. in the fifth part, a conclusion is made where the main findings of the analysis are summarized, the limitations of the present paper are pointed out, and some suggestions for future studies are provided. the sixth part lists the reference books and appendix. 3 3 ii. an introduction of rhetoric and inaugural address rhetoric is absolutely necessary in inaugural address because it plays a significant role in the speech. this part consists of a brief introduction of inaugural address and three branches of rhetoric: lexical, syntactical and phonetic stylistic devices. 2.1 an introduction of rhetoric rhetoric is an acquired competency, a manner of thinking that invents possibilities for persuasion, conviction, action, and judgment; it may be developed and sophisticated and, above all, critiqued and improved. (thomas b. farrell, 1993) rhetoric is properly choosing language and expressing devices which based on contents of communication, languages of communication and circumstances of communication. in present, rhetoric assumes the following characteristics, that is, the elaborated and exaggerated language, the art of using language effectively and persuasively, the skills of using language effectively, the structure of verbal communication. on one hand, rhetorical devices are variations of literal or ordinary form of expressions.（huang ren, 1999）their function is to make the thought more striking and effective. a fresh and suitable rhetorical device appeals to the imagination, creates mental pictures and makes the speech or writing vivid, impressive and interesting. on the other hand, rhetorical devices can make language more vivid by using the simple words to express complex meanings. by the use of rhetoric, even abstract ideas can become concrete. it can make the modified subjects more prominent, distinctive, and specific. here is the classification of rhetorical devices below. (l xu, 2004:125 ) 2.1.1 lexical stylistic devices as one kind of rhetorical devices, lexical stylistic devices mainly rely on semantic association and lingual changes. successful inaugural address is inseparable from the use of lexical stylistic devices. inaugural address usually gets help from lexical stylistic devices to make the expression more vivid and distinct. the common lexical stylistic devices mainly include simile, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole and so on. 4 4 2.1.2 syntactical stylistic devices syntactical stylistic devices often rely on the special structure of sentence to strengthen the effect of expression. it can get readers directly visual enjoyment. using syntactical stylistic devices to improve the effect of expression is one of the general rhetoric devices in inaugural address. parallelism, antithesis and repetition are used much more in inaugural address as syntactical stylistic devices. 2.1.3 phonetic stylistic devices as a common rhetorical device in inaugural address, phonetic stylistic devices often make use of the feature of sounds to get rhetorical effect. the application of various kinds of phonetic stylistic devices has so many functions which can make audiences awakening to hear the language. alliteration and onomatopoeia are belonging to phonetic stylistic devices. the adoption of the two devices makes inaugural address more powerful and appealing. 2.2 an introduction of inaugural address after the twentieth amendment to the u.s. constitution was ratified in 1933, inauguration day was moved from march 4 to january 20. when inauguration day falls on a sunday the president-elect takes the oath privately on that day, and repeats it in a public ceremony the next day. the presidential oath is prescribed in article ii, section i of the constitution of the united states, altogether 35 words. the oath runs as follows: “i do solemnly swear (or affirm) that i will faithfully execute the office of president of the united states, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the constitution of the united states.” inaugural address is a speech officially made by a person on taking office. memorable words have been uttered in inaugural address. the purpose of the speech is to explain, convince and persuade the people to accept his point of view, to accept what he says so as to support him. it is one of the most efficient ways to show presidents personality, charm, knowledge, wisdom, influential power and leading power, which is the reason why the presidents regard highly of inaugural address. from george washington to obama, presidents have used inaugural addresses to articulate their hopes and dreams for a nation. collectively, these addresses chronicle the course of this country from its earliest days to the present. washington s second inaugural address on march, 1793 required only 135 words and is the shortest once given. the longest on record, 8495 words, was delivered in a snowstorm march 4, 1841 by william henry harrison, the 9th president. 5 5 the new president uses few of hard words in that he intends to appear intimate and “closer” toward the audience. the relatively less use of abstract nouns also reflects his tendency of easy style and intention of being familiar with the audiences. the first person announces are used the most. this is also a distinguishable feature of inaugural address. here are some characteristics of inaugural address: the style is rigid, it is made beforehand, so it is a sort of written language be prepared carefully before the inaugural day. the order is clear, each paragraph has its own topic. it is clear for the audiences to remember. the tone is appropriate. the speaker uses different tone to different people to influence them. the language is rhetorical, parallelism, metaphor, antithesis, balanced structure, repetition of words and phrases-for force, vividness and emotional appeal. 6 6 iii. rhetorical devices in inaugural address i inaugural address can arose peoples attention and profound feeling to take action. languages should be used properly in specific situations. rhetorical devices are ways of making the language figurative. it is necessary to study them by giving definitions and making illustrations. hu shuzhong (2002) classifies the rhetorical devices into three types: lexical stylistic devices, syntactical stylistic devices and phonetic stylistic devices. 3.1 lexical stylistic devices lexical stylistic devices mainly rely on semantic associations and lingual changes，which include: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, simile and so on. inaugural address usually gets help from lexical stylistic devices to make the expression more vivid and distinct. 3.1.1 metaphor metaphor is a figure of speech containing an implied comparison, in which a word or phrase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing is applied to another. (michael，2003:38) a metaphor, like a simile, also has a comparison between two unlike elements and metaphor can also transfer qualities from one thing to another. the following is a good example: franklin roosevelt used this technique in his 1933 inaugural address when he stated that, to cite one example, “the withered leaves of industrial enterprise lie on every side.” one would not immediately compare factories with a forest; but by doing so, roosevelt suggests to his audience that the bleak autumn of the great depression would eventually turn back into spring. by using metaphor, the image is more vivid. 3.1.2 metonymy the term metonymy means the name of something is used to represent a more general but closely-related thing. (christina ruse, 1992: 180) metonymy is very common in everyday language. unlike metaphor, the ground of the substitution in metonymy is not similarity, but association. 7 7 metonymy is also used as one of the best know techniques in obamas speeches. for example: (1)but this crisis has reminded us that without a watchful eye, the market can spin out of control (2) but that we will extend a hand if you are willing to unclench your fist. he uses “watchful eye” to represent cautious supervision, which vividly expresses the fact. the word “hand” means peace and friend-ship, the word “fist” indicates conflicts and wars. by the use of metonymy, even abstract ideas can become concrete, which can make complex ideas more intelligible. 3.1.3 synecdoche according to the oxford dictionary, synecdoche is “a figure by which a more comprehensive term is used for a less comprehensive or vice versa; as whole for part or part for whole, the species for the genus, the material for the thing made, or in short, any portion, section, or main quality for the whole or the thing itself. ” let it be said by our children s children that when we were tested we refused to let this journey end, that we did not turn back nor did we falter. (barack obama) in the sentence, “children s children” means progeny. obama makes the word a substitution of the whole. 3.1.4 hyperbole hyperbole is an extravagant statement or figure of speech not intended to be taken literally. (jess stein, 1979) it also can be known as a figure of speech that deliberately uses exaggeration in order to give emphasis. (christina ruse, 1992:143) as geoffrey n. leech (1983) defines in his principles of pragmatics, “hyperbole refers to a case where the speakers description is stronger than is warranted by the state of affairs described” for example: we are shaped by every language and culture, drawn from every end of this earth homes have been lost ; jobs shed; businesses shuttered. (barack obama) it is an extravagant statement to promote mutual understanding and to effect the emotions of the audience. 8 8 3.1.5 simile as one kind of the oldest rhetorical devices, simile and metaphor are common in inaugural address. they are skills of artistic expression which describe some associative relationship in the cognitive process. simile is a way of comparing one thing with another of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing and it signals itself in a text, with the words as or like. its chief function is draw sharp pictures in the mind through comparison, to give deeper inside into things, persons and ideas through suggestive association, or to explain abstract, complicated ideas in simple, concrete imagery. a simile is made up of four parts: “the tenor”, “the vehicle”, “the comparing word” and “the ground”. “the tenor” is the subject of simile. “the vehicle” is the thing compared to or the part transported. “the comparing word” is the simile marker such as, “like, as, than, as if, similar to.” “the ground” is the common properties owned by “the tenor” and “the vehicle”. for example: i look forward to hearing the truth, exactly where they are. they could still be there. they could be hidden, like the 50 tons of mustard gas in a turkey farm. these sentences are from george w. bush. it can be found that in the sentences “the truth” is the “tenor”, “the mustard gas” is the “vehicle”. this simile is effective to exhibit that the truth is obvious to be found. 3.2 syntactical stylistic devices using syntactical stylistic devices to improve the effect of expression is one of the general rhetoric devices in inaugural address. parallelism, antithesis and repetition are used much more in inaugural address as syntactical stylistic devices. 3.2.1 parallelism parallelism consists of phrases or sentences of similar construction and meaning placed side by side, balancing each other. (martin gray, 2010) “in parallel construction, it is necessary to balance word for word (noun with noun, verb with verb, adjective with adjective, etc.) phrase with phrase, clause with clause, sentence with sentence.”(feng cuihua, 1995) the use of parallelism can realize the beauty of language and make it overwhelming. it is reported that parallelism is one of the most frequently used of all englis