[英语学习]第二章句子写作.doc

研究生写作教学课件 2019-1-5 第二章 句子写作 句子是由词构成的，它不仅是表达思想进行交际的基本语言单位，还是构成段落或篇章的最为复杂的语言单位。因此，句子是影响作品语言质量的关键因素。由于英汉两种语言在表达方式和语法或句法结构方面存在的较大差异，往往造成中国学生在思想表达方面和英语句法结构上出现许多问题，这直接影响学生写作表达能力的提高。本章先从分析学生在写作中的常见错误入手，指出学生在写作方面出现错误的根本原因就在于他们缺乏对英汉两种语言句子结构特征的了解。由于这方面知识的欠缺，学生在写作时往往从汉语思维角度来写英语句子或作文，结果写出来的句子或是中式英文，或是不符合英语语言规范或表达习惯。就写作而言，英汉两种语言在句子结构上的主要特征差异在于：英语属于综合语分析语，而汉语却属于分析语；英语造句注重形合，而汉语却注重意合；英语句子表达呈静态，而汉语却呈现动态；英语句子被动使用较多，而汉语却倾向于使用主动；英汉句子结构重心的侧重点不同英语句子惯用物称表达法，而汉语却习惯于人称表达法。本章对这些特征差异进行了详细的分析和比较，这样学生可以明确了解英汉两种语言在句子结构上的差异，从而使学生在写作中有意识地写出符合英语句子结构特征的英语句子。英语句子有严谨的主谓结构。主语不可或缺，谓语动词是句子的中心。主语和谓语动词搭配，构成句子的核心（kernel），英语句子主要有五种基本句型：SV、SCP、SVO、SvoO、SVOC。英语中其它各种长短句子，一般都可以看作是这五种基本句型的变式，扩展，组合，省略或倒装。正确的英语句子应该表达统一、完整的思想内容，符合逻辑，具有连贯性，并且重点突出。除了要掌握一些句子写作的基本技巧和方法外，一些常见的句子模式以及名言佳句，对提高英语表达能力具有较高的利用价值。I Contrastive Study of Sentence Structure Between English and Chinese一、Synthetic vs. Analytic形态变化、词序和虚词是表达语法意义的三大手段。这些语法手段在英汉两种语言中具有不同的特征。 英语主要运用形态变化形式或相对固定的词序以及丰富的虚词来表达语法关系，因而属于综合-分析语（synthetic-analytic language）。而汉语主要运用词序和虚词来表达语法关系，属于典型的分析语（analytic language）。英语有形态变化英语的形态变化，即词的形式变化，主要包括构词形态和构形形态。1) 构词形态指的是起构词作用的词缀变化（affixation）。这些变化主要有：性（gender）、数(number)、格(case)、时(tense)、体(aspect)、语态(voice)、语气(mood)、比较级(degree of comparison)、人称(person)和词性(parts of speech)等。英语词缀不仅规模大，数量多，而且种类齐全。相比之下，汉语的词缀构词，无论是规模，还是种类都不及英语。英语可以运用丰富的词缀构词造句，即通过词形变化，改变词性，用这些次灵活组句，表达一个几乎相同的意思。如：He moved astonishingly fast.He moved with astonishing rapidity.His movements were astonishingly rapid.His rapid movements astonished us.His movements astonished us by their rapidity.The rapidity of his movements was astonishing.The rapidity with which he moved astonished us.He astonished us by moving rapidly.2） 构形形态，即表达语法意义的词形变化。主要是动词的变化（conjugation）和名词、代词、形容词及副词的变化（declension）, 如：He gives me watch.He gave me a watch.He has given me two watches .严格说来，汉语没有形态变化。汉语中的数量助词（如“们”表示复数）、动态助词（如“着”、“了”、“过”表示动词的体）与结构助词（“的”、“地”、“得”）虽类似英语的形态变化，但这些成分的使用在汉语中缺乏普遍性。英语词序比较灵活，而汉语词序相对固定。形态变化与词序有密切的关系。形态变化越多的语言，词序越灵活。汉语是典型的分析语，词没有形态标志，位置不能随便移动，词语之间的关系主要通过安排词序及使用虚词来表达。英语的语法意义可以通过词序或虚词来表达， 在许多情况下，也可以用形态变化来表示。因而，英语词语和从句的位置比汉语灵活。如英语中的倒装句，定语的位置等。carefully They studied the problems 他们仔细地研究了那些问题。He rose from the seat slowly.Slowly he rose from the seat.He slowly rose from the seat.他慢慢地从座位上站了起来。The poet died on a Monday morning in July 2005.这位诗人死于2005年七月一个星期一的早晨。Example :a very important question 一个很重要的问题 a question of great importance a debatable topic 一个可以辩论的主题 a topic which can be debated 二 Hypotactic vs paratactic1. 英语造句主要采用形合法（hypotaxis）。 所谓形合，就是指句中的词语或分句之间主要靠语言本身的语言形式手段，来表达语法和逻辑关系。英语造句常用各种形式手段来连接词、短语、分句或从句，注重显性接应，句子结构紧凑严密，句子以形现义。英语中的连接手段和形式不仅数量大，种类多，而且使用频繁。主要的连接手段和形式有：1) 关系词，2)连接词，3) 介词, 4) 其它连接手段,如形态变化,前后一致关系,以及it 和there 起连接作用。Example 1:The isolation of the rural world, because of distance and the lack of transport facilities, is compounded, by the paucity of the information media.介词：of, because of , of , by ,of形态变化： isolation, facilities,Example 2:He boasts that a slave is free the moment his feet touch British soil and he sells the children of the poor at six years of age to work under the lash in the factories, for sixteen hours a day.连接词：that, the moment, and 介词： of, of, to , under, in ,for形态变化：boasts, sells, children, years, factories, hours一致关系：He-his, He-boasts, he- sells, his feet-touchExample 3:It was what sentimentalists ,who deal in very big words, call a yearning after the ideal, and simply means that women are not satisfied until they have husbands and children on whom they may control affections, which spend elsewhere , as it were, in small change.(W.Thackeray: Vanity Fair)关系词：what, who, whom, which, 连接词： and, that, until, and, as,介词： in, after, on, in两处“it”的连接形式形态变化： 名词的单复数：sentimentalists, words, women, husbands, children, affections,谓语动词的时态，数以及语态： was, deal, call, means, are, have, are spent, were代词： they ,they, they 三 Stative vs. Dynamic英语表达倾向于多用名词，因而叙述呈静态（stative）;汉语表达倾向于多用动词，因而叙述呈动态（dynamic）。1英语的静态倾向主要表现在以下几个方面：1）名词化（nominalization）是英语常见的现象。名词化指用名词来表达原来属于动词或形容词所表达的概念，如用抽象名词来表达动作、行为、状态、品质、情感等概念。Examples: The appearance of the book on the market caused a sensation Another departure from the recent White House practices is the absence of dancing.The doctors extremely quick arrival and uncommonly careful examination of the patient brought about his very speedy recovery.2）用名词的施事者（agentive noun），来代替动词。由于英语中有许多由动词派生（如以-er或or结尾）的名词既表示施事者，又保留原来动词的意义。因此，英语中常用含有行为和动作意义的普通名词代替动词。Examples: He is a good eater and a good sleeper. She proved to be a good listener. 3）名词优势造成介词优势。 由于英语多用名词，必然也要多用介词，因而产生了介词优势。介词优势与名词优势结合，使英语的静态倾向更为显著。Examples:He is at his books.Inadequate training for farmers and the low productivity of many farms place the majority of country dwellers in a disadvantageous position in their own countries.Carlisle Street runs westward, across a great black bridge, down a hill and up again, by little shops and meat markets, past single-stored homes, until suddenly it stops against a wide green lawn.4）动词的弱化和虚化。 英语中最常用的动词正是动作意味最弱的动词to be, 以及一些常用的弱式动词如 have, become, grow, feel, go ,get等， 这些动词的各种形式都缺乏动态感。此外，英语还常常将动词转化或派生成名词，置于虚化动词（如have, make ,do ,take 等）之后作宾语,如 have a look, take a walk, pay visits, do some cleaning 等。 这类动词短语往往显得虚弱或平淡无味。Examples: Who will take charge of your mother when you are away? Lets have a look at the picture.5）用形容词或副词表达动词的意义。英语常用动词的同源形容词与弱化动词相结合的方式表达动词的意义。Examples: I am doubtful whether he is still alive.The doctors felt sympathetic with their patients.She will be home in an hour.Class will be over at 4 oclock. 四 Passive vs Active1英语被动语态被动语态的广泛使用是英语有别于汉语的一大特点。由于英文文章常用被动句，因此被动语态在英语里就成了一种常见的语法现象，尤其在英语科技文体中，用被动语态几乎成了一种表达习惯。被动句使用的原因：1) 施事的原因。 人们在表达思想时，通常使用主动句。但当句子的施事（(agent) 由于下列原因不需要或不可能指明时，则英语往往采用被动句。 不知道或没有必要说明施事者是谁。It is said that a thief was caught yesterday.As the hole is being drilled, a steel pipe is pushed down to prevent the sides from falling in.We havent been told about it. 无从说出主动者是谁。Rice is chiefly grown in the south.The problem is being studied. 施事者在上下文中可以不言自明，为了便于衔接而使用被动句。He told me that his boss had dismissed him. No reasons had been assigned.Jack fought John in the mens singles last night and was beaten.He appeared on the stage and was warmly applauded by the audience. 施事没有受事重要，或受事需要强调。His only daughter was run over by a truck.The letter was broken into pieces.The song was composed by a worker. 为了表达某种微妙的情绪或出于礼貌措辞圆通等方面考虑，不愿指明施事。You are requested to give a performance.Something has been said at the party tonight that ought not to have been spoken.It is general considered not advisable to act that way.2) 出于句法、修辞或文体的需要。适当使用被动句可以使表达灵活多变，避免句型单调。一些信息性（informative）的文体多使用被动句。这类文体主要指科技文体、新闻文体、公文文体以及论述文体。 She was astounded that her boy friend was not prepared to present her a bunch of rose.The basic English sentence patterns can be varied in many ways.The decimal, or ten-scale, system is used for scientific purpose throughout the world, even in countries whose national system of weights and measurements are based upon other scales.Under heavy police guard, the dinner was finally held in a marquee near the village of Welshpool in the country of Powys. Your salary and period of appointment and reappointment have been so recognized. 英语的被动式分为：结构被动式（syntactic passive）和意义被动式（notional passive），但在英语句子中，前者远比后者多。结构被动式指利用被动结构 be + 动词过去分词来表示。如：These kinds of studies were not started until the new equipment was imported from a developed country.I was astonished that he was prepared to give me a well-paid job.意义被动式指利用主动形式来表被动意义。如： These products sell like hot cakes. Miss Alice dresses beautiful today.The First World War broke out in 1914.What did the accident occur?五、Impersonal vs Personal.西方人的哲学强调主客体对立，物我分明。所以西方人重形式论证，崇尚个体思维，重分析，其表现在语言中，重形合，不求全面，周到，但求结构严谨。所以 造句常使用物称表达法，即让事物以客观的口气呈现出来，这种表达法使叙述显得客观，公正，结构严密，紧凑，语气委婉间接。而汉人的哲学则强调“天人合一”，主客体统一，主张“万物与我为一”。因此，汉语则重悟性，重整体抽象，重综合，即不是凭借严谨的形式进行分析，而是根据主观的直觉，从逻辑及上下文中悟出关系来。因此，汉语语言简约和模糊。意合是汉语重悟性的突出表现，即在语言中可以连连出现省略，但意义相连，脉络清楚。汉语中形散而神聚的句子比比皆是。由于汉语较注重主体思维，这种思维模式往往从自我出发来叙述客观事物，或倾向于描述人极其行为或状态，因而常用人称表达法。当人称可以不言而喻时，又常常隐含人称或省略人称。1英语常用非人称主语，而汉语常用人称主语。英语用非人称作主语的句子可以分为两类：1）用抽象名词或无生命的事物名称作主语，即“无灵主语” (inanimated subject)，同时使用表示人的动作或行为的动词即“有灵动词”作谓语，因而，此句式往往带有拟人化的修辞色彩，语气含蓄，令人回味。英语中这类“无灵主语”与“有灵动词”搭配的句式不仅比汉语多，而且使用场合也比汉语广。My good fortune has sent you to me , and we will never part. 我很幸运，能够得到你，让我们永不分离吧。Excitement deprived me of all power of utterance. 我兴奋得什么话也说不出来。I was too excited to say a word.His passion carried him astray. 他因感情冲动而误入歧途。Neither sorrow nor regret followed my passionate outburst. 我发一阵怒之后，并不难过，也不后悔。2）使用非人称代词“it” 和“there”作主语。It is common knowledge that all living things need air. 所有生物都需要空气，这是常识。It was in 214 B.C. that the Chinese Began constructing the Great Wall. 是在公元前214年，中国人民开始建造万里长城。There used to be no power supply in this area. 这个地区过去没有电力供应。There existed many strange animals in ancient times. 古代曾经生存过许多奇异的动物。有there stand ( be, exist , used to, have, ) 英语常用被动式，采用物称表达法；汉语常用主动式，采用人称表达法，泛称或隐称表达法。A tree is known by its fruit, and a man is known by his actions. 看树看果实，看人看作为。Matter is known to occupy space. 我们知道物质占有空间。A large motor is being installed in our factory.我们厂里正在安装一部大型电动机。 II 、Sentence patterns and other variants一、Five types of basic sentence patterns For the correct construction of sentences, sentences structures are what sentence constructions are totally dependent on. Lets go over the following five types of basic sentence patterns listed blown.二Other variants （变体）Of all the sentences in English, apart from the five types of basic sentence patterns mentioned above, other sentences could be regarded as the variants of these five types of basic sentence patterns.Variation of Basic English Sentences （变式）Interrogative sentence changed from the narrative sentence. For example:Has the mobile phone been working well? Can we get to Beijing in an hour by plane?Negative sentence from positive sentence. For example:He didnt come from Sydney.What he said was not true.Passive sentence from active sentence. For example:The door was painted red.He has been sent to hospital.“There+be” Structure. For example:There is a book on the desk.Once upon a time, there lived an old man in the village.2. Extension of Basic English Sentences （扩展）Adding modified words or phrases or clauses as attributive or adverbial. For example:Stressed people have higher cholesterol levels.The other key to controlling stress is to realize that there are other troublesome parts of your life over which you can have little or no control. Adding the elements of Basic English Sentences. For example:Scientists have proved it true that some animals have pretty high intelligence.The structure of the steel and resulting properties will depend on how hot the steel gets and how quickly or slowly it is cooled. 3、Combination of Basic English Sentences（组合）For example:It is a common way to put all kinds of basic English sentences together in terms of connectives and punctuation. For example: The survivors still speak with fear of the day when the disaster happened.Video games appeal to some deep instinct in boys, who find it impossible to tear themselves away from them. 4、Omission of Basic English Sentences （省略）For example:Generally speaking, some elements or words or phrases of basic English sentences could be omitted. For example:We may go to the karaoke bar or stay at home to watch the video show.No Admittance Except on Business.Victory Now in Sight.His face is tanned and his hands big and strong.He was a friend to, and a strong supporter of, the party leader.5、Inversion of basic English sentence.（倒装）For example:The window opened and in came a gentle breeze.On the top of the hill stands an old temple.Such was his strength that he carried all the boxes onto the third floor.Facing the lake was a little inn with its pillared veranda.三 Types of Sentences1、According to their use, sentences are divided into declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory.Declarative sentence We consider him to be a nice person. Trade helps develop industry. Interrogative sentence Has the meeting begun? Are you married ?Imperative sentence Take a seat, please. Lets do it again. Exclamatory sentence What a terrible place the Bermuda Triangle is! How nice the house looks!2、According to their structure, sentences are categorized into simple, compound, complex and compound-complexSimple sentence：There are many kinds of books.My brother and I both live in London.Compound sentenceThe moon was hidden by the clouds; not a star could be seen.We tried to persuade her, but she refused to come.Complex sentence：He wanted to see whether he would be given another chance.I told him what I wanted to say.This is exactly what I want to say.Compound-complex： My father promised that he would meet me, but when I arrived at the station, he was nowhere to be seen.To cope with the difficult situation, we have to cut down our expenditures and practice economy. 不定式作状语 。The Chinese character Hao, which combines symbol for “woman” with the symbol for “boy”, means “good”. 定语从句作定语。Convinced of the defendants guilt, the jury twisted the facts to support their judgment.分词作状语Everything considered, New York is a most exciting city. 独立结构作状语Repeated cheating on tests is risky and self-defeating. 动名词作主语That the Olympic Games have become prohibitingly expensive is one reason why American cities show little interest in hosting it. （名词从句作主语）The teacher will find that the general attitudes of students towards classroom communication fluctuate, not only from generation to generation or from decade to decade, but also almost from year to year.(介词短语作定语和状语)3、From a rhetorical point of view, sentences are loose sentence（松散句）、 periodic sentence（圆周句） and balanced sentence（平衡句）.A loose sentence refers to a sentence putting the main idea before all supplementary information. In other words, the reader would know what the sentence is mainly about when he has read the first few words. A loose sentence is easier, simple, more natural and direct.For example: Mr. Smith made up his mind to study Chinese culture, because he had great interest in it.He was sitting in a large chair before the fire when we entered the room. 尾重A periodic sentence refers to a sentence in which the main idea is expressed at or near the end of it. In other words, the reader would not know what the sentence is mainly about until he has read the whole sentence. Generally speaking, a periodic sentence is more complex, emphatic, formal or literary. For example:Although she was interested in French, he never studied it.When the class was over, the students went to the park.A balanced sentence means a sentence containing two or more parts similar in structure but contrasted in meaning. Generally speaking, a balanced sentence is emphatic, forceful and impressive because of its contrast and this kind of sentence is mainly used in formal writing, such as expository and argumentative prose, and speeches. For example:Upon hearing the news, I was angered, and he was saddened.It is the age that forms the man; not the man that forms the age.III How to write effective sentence1、Sentence should have a quality of Unity.Unity is of great importance for a sentence. A unified sentence must express a single complete thought. On the one hand, those, which are not closely related to the main idea, should not be included in a sentence; on the other hand, a sentence should not express a thought that is not complete by itself.Original sentence: As we were driving out into the country, we met a man riding a bicycle, and we passed a truck fully loaded with vegetables, and on our way back we stopped at a grocerys to get some fruit.Revised sentence: As we were driving out into the country, we met a man riding a bicycle. Later we passed a truck fully loaded with vegetables. On our way back, we stopped at a grocerys to get some fruit. Faulty: She keeps on singing and dancing. Apparently not noticing me.Revised: She keeps on singing and dancing, apparently not noticing me.Faulty: Bothered by the noise in the street. She could hardly fall asleep.Revised: Faulty: I did not hear her when she came in. Because I was sleeping soundly.Faulty: I thought I would go to dance. But soon changed my mind.Faulty: Shanghai is one of the biggest cities.Faulty: I am not surprised that he failed in the examination, he had not been working very hard.Faulty: The patients condition got worse when he was given every attention.Faulty: A well-dressed man admitted us into the house, and we later learned that he was a thief . 2、Sentence should have a quality of coherence.Coherence means clear and reasonable connection between parts. A sentence is coherent when its words or parts are properly connected and their relationships unmistakably clear. Therefore, the elements within a sentence should be coherently or logically arranged. The following cases will harm the quality of coherence.1）、Problems caused by agreement This kind of problem mainly means that the number of predicate in a sentence is not in accordance with its subject, especially in a sentence containing such words or phrases as “and”, “as well as ”, “ together with”, “in addition”, “coupled with”, etc.Faulty: One of the main problems are that few students trust me.Revised: One of th