高层建筑组成外文翻译.docVIP

本科生毕业设计（论文）外文资料翻译文献出处 Civil engineering magazine 姓名 游明坚 学号 408105030220学 院 工程学院 专业 土木工程 指导教师 曹秀玲 2012年 5月8日Components of Tall Buildings1. Abstract Materials and structural forms are combined to make up the various parts of a building, including the load-carrying frame, skin, floors, and partitions. The building also has mechanical and electrical systems, such as elevators, heating and cooling systems, and lighting systems. The superstructure is that part of a building above ground, and the substructure and foundation is that part of a building below ground. The skyscraper owes its existence to two developments of the 19th century: steel skeleton construction and the passenger elevator. Steel as a construction material dates from the introduction of the Bessemer converter in 1885.Gustave Eiffel (1832-1932) introduced steel construction in France. His designs for the Galerie des Machines and the Tower for the Paris Exposition of 1889 expressed the lightness of the steel framework. The Eiffel Tower, 984 feet (300 meters) high, was the tallest structure built by man and was not surpassed until 40 years later by a series of American skyscrapers. Elisha Otis installed the first elevator in a department store in New York in 1857.In 1889, Eiffel installed the first elevators on a grand scale in the Eiffel Tower, whose hydraulic elevators could transport 2,350 passengers to the summit every hour.2. Load-Carrying Frame Until the late 19th century, the exterior walls of a building were used as bearing walls to support the floors. This construction is essentially a post and lintel type, and it is still used in frame construction for houses. Bearing-wall construction limited the height of building because of the enormous wall thickness required；for instance, the 16-story Monadnock Building built in the 1880s in Chicago had walls 5 feet (1.5 meters) thick at the lower floors. In 1883, William Le Baron Jenney (1832-1907) supported floors on cast-iron columns to form a cage-like construction. Skeleton construction, consisting of steel beams and columns, was first used in 1889. As a consequence of skeleton construction, the enclosing walls become a “curtain wall” rather than serving a supporting function. Masonry was the curtain wall material until the 1930s, when light metal and glass curtain walls were used. After the introduction of buildings continued to increase rapidly. All tall buildings were built with a skeleton of steel until World War . After the war, the shortage of steel and the improved quality of concrete led to tall building being built of reinforced concrete. Marina Tower (1962) in Chicago is the tallest concrete building in the United States； its height588 feet (179 meters)is exceeded by the 650-foot (198-meter) Post Office Tower in London and by other towers. A change in attitude about skyscraper construction has brought a return to the use of the bearing wall. In New York City, the Columbia Broadcasting System Building, designed by Eero Saarinen in 1962,has a perimeter wall consisting of 5-foot (1.5meter) wide concrete columns spaced 10 feet (3 meters) from column center to center. This perimeter wall, in effect, constitutes a bearing wall. One reason for this trend is that stiffness against the action of wind can be economically obtained by using the walls of the building as a tube； the World Trade Center building is another example of this tube approach. In contrast, rigid frames or vertical trusses are usually provided to give lateral stability. 3. Skin The skin of a building consists of both transparent elements (windows) and opaque elements (walls). Windows are traditionally glass, although plastics are being used,especially in schools where breakage creates a maintenance problem. The wall elements, which are used to cover the structure and are supported by it, are built of a variety of materials: brick, precast concrete, stone, opaque glass, plastics, steel, and aluminum. Wood is used mainly in house construction； it is not generally used for commercial, industrial, or public building because of the fire hazard. 4. Floors The construction of the floors in a building depends on the basic structural frame that is used. In steel skeleton construction, floors are either slabs of concrete resting on steel beams or a deck consisting of corrugated steel with a concrete topping. In concrete construction, the floors are either slabs of concrete on concrete beams or a series of closely spaced concrete beams (ribs) in two directions topped with a thin concrete slab, giving the appearance of a waffle on its underside. The kind of floor that is used depends on the span between supporting columns or walls and the function of the space. In an apartment building, for instance, where walls and columns are spaced at 12 to 18 feet (3.7 to 5.5 meters), the most popular construction is a solid concrete slab with no beams. The underside of the slab serves as the ceiling for the space below it. Corrugated steel decks are often used in office buildings because the corrugations, when enclosed by another sheet of metal, form ducts for telephone and electrical lines. 5. Mechanical and Electrical Systems A modern building not only contains the space for which it is intended (office, classroom, apartment) but also contains ancillary space for mechanical and electrical systems that help to provide a comfortable environment. These ancillary spaces in a skyscraper office building may constitute 25% of the total building area. The importance of heating, ventilating, electrical, and plumbing systems in an office building is shown by the fact that 40% of the construction budget is allocated to them. Because of the increased use of sealed building with windows that cannot be opened, elaborate mechanical systems areprovided for ventilation and air conditioning. Ducts and pipes carry fresh air from central fan rooms and air conditioning machinery. The ceiling, which is 3 suspended below the upper floor construction, conceals the ductwork and contains the lighting units. Electrical wiring for power and for telephone communication may also be located in this ceiling space or may be buried in the floor construction in pipes or conduits. There have been attempts to incorporate the mechanical and electrical systems into the architecture of building by frankly expressing them； for example, the American Republic Insurance Company Building(1965) in Des Moines, Iowa, exposes both the ducts and the floor structure in an organized and elegant pattern and dispenses with the suspended ceiling. This type of approach makes it possible to reduce the cost of the building and permits innovations, such as in the span of the structure. 6. Soils and Foundations All building are supported on the ground, and therefore the nature of the soil becomes an extremely important consideration in the design of any building. The design of a foundation depends on many soil factors, such as type of soil, soil stratification, thickness of soil lavers and their compaction, and groundwater conditions. Soils rarely have a single composition； they generally are mixtures in layers of varying thickness. For evaluation, soils are graded according to particle size, which increases from silt to clay to sand to gravel to rock. In general, the larger particle soils will support heavier loads than the smaller ones. The hardest rock can support loads up to 100 tons per square foot(976.5 metric tons/sq meter), but the softest silt can support a load of only 0.25 ton per square foot(2.44 metric tons/sq meter). All soils beneath the surface are in a state of compaction； that is, they are under a pressure that is equal to the weight of the soil column above it. Many soils (except for most sands and gavels) exhibit elastic propertiesthey deform when compressed under load and rebound when the load is removed. The elasticity of soils is often time-dependent, that is, deformations of the soil occur over a length of time which may vary from minutes to years after a load is imposed. Over a period of time, a building may settle if it imposes a load on the soil greater than the natural compaction weight of the soil. Conversely, a building may heave if it imposes loads on the soil smaller than the natural compaction weight. The soil may also flow under the weight of a building； that is, it tends to be squeezed out. Due to both the compaction and flow effects, buildings tend settle. Uneven settlements, exemplified by the leaning towers in Pisa and Bologna, can have damaging effectsthe building may lean, walls and partitions may crack, windows and doors may become inoperative, and, in the extreme, a building may collapse. Uniform settlements are not so serious, although extreme conditions, such as those in Mexico City, can have serious consequences. Over the past 100 years, a change in the groundwater level there has caused some buildings to settle more than 10 feet (3 meters). Because such movements can occur during and after construction, careful analysis of the behavior of soils under a building is vital. The great variability of soils has led to a variety of solutions to the foundation problem. Where 4 firm soil exists close to the surface, the simplest solution is to rest columns on a small slab of concrete(spread footing). Where the soil is softer, it is necessary to spread the column load over a greater area；in this case, a continuous slab of concrete(raft or mat) under the whole building is used.In cases where the soil near the surface is unable to support the weight of the building, piles of wood, steel, or concrete are driven down to firm soil. The construction of a building proceeds naturally from the foundation up to the superstructure. The design process, however, proceeds from the roof down to the foundation (in the direction of gravity). In the past, the foundation was not subject to systematic investigation. A scientific approach to the design of foundations has been developed in the 20th century. Karl Terzaghi of the United States pioneered studies that made it possible to make accurate predictions of the behavior of foundations, using the science of soil mechanics coupled with exploration and testing procedures. Foundation failures of the past, such as the classical example of the leaning tower in Pisa, have become almost nonexistent. Foundations still are a hidden but costly part of many buildings. Although there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general, spectacular achievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings. The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing. Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes. The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structural systems. Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit. Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings, and other architectural details. In addition, excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because of their perception of such motion. Structural systems of reinforced concrete, as well as steel, take full advantage of the inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore do not require additional stiffening to limit the sway. In a steel structure, for example, the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building. Curve A in Fig.1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame. Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium. 7. Tube in tube Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig.2), known as the tube-in-tube system, made it possible to design the worlds present tallest (714 ft or 218 m) lightweight concrete building (the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories. Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an example of which is the composite system developed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system. 高层建筑组成1摘要材料和结构形式结合在一起，成为建筑物的各个部分，包括的承载框架，外围结构，地板和分区。大楼还设有电梯，加热和冷却系统，如机械和电气系统，照明系统。上层结构是地面以上建筑物部分，下部结构地基和基础，是低于地面建筑的一部分。摩天大楼之所以会存在，得益于19世纪的两个发展：钢骨架建设和乘客电梯。钢材作为建筑材料是从贝西法在1885被发明开始。艾菲尔在法国第一次介绍了建筑钢材。他设计了1889年巴黎世界博览会塔钢框架很出色。艾菲尔铁塔，高984英尺（300米），是由人建成的最高结构，一直没有被超越，直到40年后的一系列美国摩天大楼。1889年沙奥的斯为在纽约的百货公司安装了第一部电梯。巴黎的铁塔每隔一小时可以运送2350名乘客，艾菲尔铁塔安装了一个规模宏大的电梯，是有史以来的第一次。2 承重框架 直到19世纪末，建筑物的外墙一直被用作承重墙支持地板。这种结构基本上是后门楣类型的，它仍然用于住房建设的框架。轴承墙施工因建设需要巨大的墙壁厚度和高度而限制，例如，建于1880年芝加哥的16层高莫纳德诺克大厦，在较低楼层墙体高度已达5英尺（1.5米）厚。1883年，威廉乐男爵（1832至1907年）支持铸铁列的铁柱来支撑楼层。框架结构由骨架建设，钢梁和柱组成，于1889年首次使用。作为骨架建设的成果，围墙成为“玻璃幕墙”，而不是其他服务配套。砌体，直到1930年才用轻金属和玻璃幕墙的使用。引入钢材料后，建筑物的高度迅速增加。所有的高层都是由钢骨架建筑的，直到二战为止。战争结束后，钢和混凝土质量的提高，促使高层钢筋混凝土建筑的建造。滨海大厦（1962）在芝加哥是美国最高的混凝土建筑，其高度是588英尺（179米），超过在伦敦的办公室大楼及其他塔。有关摩天大楼的承重墙的使用在态度上有了改变。在纽约市，埃罗沙里宁设计于1962年的美国哥伦比亚广播大楼，围墙由5英尺（1.5米）范围内的混凝土柱组成，柱间距10英尺（3米）。实际上，这围墙构成承重墙。造成这种趋势的原因之一是建筑物的墙像一个管道可以有效地抵抗风的作用；世贸大楼是另一个管道法的很好例子。相比之下，坚固的框架或垂直支撑通常提供建筑的横向稳定。3 围护结构建筑物的围护结构由透明的窗户和不透明的墙组成。窗户是传统的玻璃，虽然塑料也被使用，尤其是在学校，破损的严重的地方。墙上的材料的作用，是用来掩盖结构和它支持的，材料有砖，预制混凝土，石材，不透明的玻璃，塑料，钢材，铝。木材主要用于房屋建筑;它一般不用于商业，工业和公共建筑等有火灾隐患的地方。 4 楼地面 建筑物的楼层的建设，取决于所使用的基本结构框架。钢骨架建设中，地板是在钢梁或波纹钢组成的一个具体的平顶甲板上的混凝土或者砖。混凝土施工中，地板上混凝土梁或一系列密集的钢筋混凝土梁在两个方向（排骨）的混凝土或者砖配上薄混凝土板上，下面抹一层抹面。楼层种类取决于支撑柱之间的距离或墙和空间的功能性。例如，在一座公寓楼，墙壁和列间距在12至18英尺（3.7米至5.5米）之间，最流行的是建设一个坚实的无梁混凝土板。楼板底面作为它下面的空间上限。办公大楼中使用波纹钢地板，因为波纹钢地板波纹由另一块金属板盖上时，可以形成电话线和电线管道。5 机械电力系统如今的建筑不仅要包含必要的使用空间，也要包括机械、电力系统等的辅助空间，来营造一个舒适的生活环境。这些辅助的空间可能占大楼总建筑面积的25%。一个办公大楼中供暖、通风、电力和卫生设备系统预算额在实际建筑总预算额中的40%，说明了它们在建筑中的重要性。许多建筑是密闭的，窗户不能被打开，所以由机械系统要提供通风设备和空气调节的设备。新鲜的空气从中央换气室由空气调节器输入。通风管以及控制照明设备单元由悬挂在上面楼层结构下面的天花板遮住了。提供动