高低语境跨文化交际.doc

1 High context culture（高语境文化）：Cultures in which less has to be said or written because more of the meaning is in the physical environment or already shared by people are labeled high context.（在高语境文化中，在人们交际时，有较多的信息量或者蕴涵在社会文化环境和情景中，或者内化于交际者的心中；相对地讲，明显的语码则负载较少的信息量。这也意味着，在强交际环境文化的人们对微妙的环境提示较为敏感。） Low context culture（低语境文化）：Cultures in which little of the meaning is determined by the context because the message is encoded in the explicit code are labeled low context. （在低语境文化中，交际过程中所产生的信息量的大部分由显性的语码负载，相对地讲，只有少量的信息蕴涵在隐性的环境和情景中。这也意味着，在低语境文化中的人们习惯用语言本身的力量来进行交际。）2 General Introduction to High-context and Low-context Cultures Anthropologist Edward T. Halls theory of high- and low-context culture helps us better understand the powerful effect culture has on communication. A key factor in his theory is context. This relates to the framework, background, and surrounding circumstances in which communication or an event takes place. High-context cultures (including much of the Middle East, Asia, Africa, and South America) are relational, collectivist, intuitive, and contemplative. This means that people in these cultures emphasize interpersonal relationships. Developing trust is an important first step to any business transaction. According to Hall, these cultures are collectivist, preferring group harmony and consensus to individual achievement. And people in these cultures are less governed by reason than by intuition or feelings. Words are not so important as context, which might include the speakers tone of voice, facial expression, gestures, postureand even the persons family history and status. A Japanese manager explained his cultures communication style to an American: We are a homogeneous people and dont have to speak as much as you do here. When we say one word, we understand ten, but here you have to say ten to understand one. High-context communication tends to be more indirect and more formal. Flowery language, humility, and elaborate apologies are typical. Low-context cultures (including North America and much of Western Europe) are logical, linear, individualistic, and action-oriented. People from low-context cultures value logic, facts, and directness. Solving a problem means lining up the facts and evaluating one after another. Decisions are based on fact rather than intuition. Discussions end with actions. And communicators are expected to be straightforward, concise, and efficient in telling what action is expected. To be absolutely clear, they strive to use precise words and intend them to be taken literally. Explicit contracts conclude negotiations. This is very different from communicators in high-context cultures who depend less on language precision and legal documents. High-context business people may even distrust contracts and be offended by the lack of trust they suggest. 3 Cross-cultural tips 跨文化交流中语境文化的角色 一位受英文教育的新加坡公民的一位居于中国的长辈去世了，她代表父母到中国参加这位长辈的葬礼。临行前她母亲千叮万嘱，要她把一笔钱交给这位去世长辈的亲友，以表悼念心意。当她把钱面交有关亲友时，不料对方连连推拒。朋友见状，也就没有再坚持了。岂料回到新加坡后不久，就听到了亲友的隔海埋怨，责之不晓世事。惟到此时，她才明白了临行前母亲那几近执着的叮咛的真正含义。 一位会说中文的美国投资商人曾叹道，在与中国人共事时，不是自己的话常被别人误解，就是自己对别人的话语理解不到位。在今天跨文化交流的大环境下，这种沟通不畅的问题，相信对许多读者来说，并不陌生，它实际上是凸显了这样一个事实：在很多的情况下，言语交际的不畅，已不再仅仅是语言本身的问题，而是与语言背后的文化背景和文化因素息息相关。 美国人类学家，语用学家爱德华T霍尔 (Edward T. Hall) 于1981年提出语境文化概念。在霍尔看来，不同民族在进行言语交际时，往往会不自觉地受到各自的文化背景、民族心理、思维定势和语言习惯的影响，而倾向于采用不同的语言运用和理解模式，这就形成了不同的语境文化。因此，他认为按照言语交际方式对语境的依赖程度，不同的文化其实可以被划分为高语境文化（high-context culture） 和低语境文化（low-context culture）。这里所说的高低，并不涉及语言背后的文化、经济实力或者文化本身的素质，而是纯指不同文化在言语交际中对语境依赖程度的高低。 今天，语境文化在跨文化交流中的制约作用，已为愈来愈多地的人所重视。语境文化之间的差异，为人们的文化交流开辟了许多新的领域，但也同时为人们的沟通设置了不少客观障碍。因此，适当地了解不同语境文化的言语制约特征，对我们更好地进行文化交流和语言交际，可谓不无裨益。不同语境文化的言语表达特点 下面，让我们再来看看不同语境文化的三个语言表达特点： （一）言外之意 8我们首先注意到是言语中传情达意成分的多寡。此处的传意成分不同于信息量：如果说信息量是指言语所传递的信息多寡的话，那么传意成分则偏重于信息背后的意，即那一点点的言外之意。 举个例子：餐宴将毕，主人问客人：你吃饱了吗？ 客人对此话的理解和判断过程，实际上会因为主人所处的语境文化而呈现出不同的模式。若主人是一德国人，客人会因为德国文化属于低语境文化，而自然地单纯从字面上去理解这句问话，得出的结论是：他想知道这顿饭的份量对我来说是否足够。 若主人是一中国人，客人则会做出这样的判断：中国人的文化是高语境文化，因此这句问话中所包含的潜台词，也许会比词语的字面值高得多，其中不仅有不知这餐饭的份量够不够之疑，也可能有这餐饭是否合你口味、中国菜你是否喜欢吃、你对我的招待是否满意之问。此时，客人就可能选择这样回答：我对这顿饭很满意。中国菜好吃，我很喜欢吃中国菜。我也非常感谢你的盛情款待。 如此一来，不同文化语境中对言语理解的负面制约因素就会被破解，沟通顺畅，宾主尽欢。 因此，了解不同语境文化的传意成分，有助于我们更准确地判断对方言语的字面值和潜台词，并据此来调整自己的言语表达和理解模式。 （二）长话短听 其次是言语交际中的用语量大小。人们可能会以为，低语境文化的言语交际全靠话语的字面意义来传递信息，因此人们在交际时就不得不使用更多的词语、更长的句子。其实不然。正如我们在前面所提到的，来自低语境文化的人倾向于使用传意成分高的词语，在遣词用字方面讲求精确、直接、不拐弯抹角，每一个词都能起到其实际的传意效果，因此他们的用语量并不大。 反观高语境文化。由于人们使用的是传意成分偏低的言语表达方式，词语附带的理解价值也就相对较低，因此人们可能得讲上好几个回合，兼用婉曲、双关甚至反语，才能间接勾勒出其言的理解背景。正如前文所提及的，中国、日本文化都是一种谦让文化，人们不仅使用隐晦含糊的词语，而且在表达方式上也是迂迥暧昧的；没有几个回合，实无法捕捉其话语的本义所在。就是这样的一推一让，使得用语量大大增加，也同时加深了听话人准确捉摸言语真正含义的难度。 例如，一个美国人尝试几次邀请一位同路的日本朋友来家做客。刚开始的几次，在家门口简单寒暄之后，日本朋友会说不用进去了之类的客套话。要待这位美国人再三提出邀请，促其不要客气之后，她才会说：那我就不客气打扰了。刚开始时，美国人感到颇不习惯，但在其了解了日本特有的语境文化特征后，这一切又好像不难理解了。 因此，在对用语多寡有一个基本认识后，我们在与来自高语境文化的人交流时，就会尽量避免被那些大量的、看似无关紧要的词语弄昏头脑，就会懂得长话短听、抽丝剥茧，更关注于说话人内心的真正意向。这样一来，沟通畅顺自不在话下。 （三）面子问题 再者，对社会地位和面子问题的考虑，也是高语境文化中不可或缺的重要部分。 对于来自低语境文化的美国人、德国人来说，直接提出质问和提出异议，是解决问题的最佳方式。在他们看来，直接是对事不对人，因此不存在尊重与否的问题。 然而，处于高语境文化的日本人、中国人，则不喜采用太过直接的方式去直斥对方的不是，认为此举会让人下不来台。尤其是日本人。即使他们不同意别人的观点，一般也不会反驳，而总是退后多步，用迂回婉转的言辞道出自己的意思，让听话人往深一层去揣摩。在日本人看来，这种尊敬度高的举动，是一种有修养的表现，能给对方留下足够的反应余地，顾及到对方的面子。 然而，这种退后多步的表达方式，有时却是诸多误会的开始。事实上，直来直去的美国人，据说最怕的就是在商业谈判中与日本人交手，因为后者那种模棱两可的表达方式常让他们摸不着头脑。例如，为了表示对听话人的尊重，日本人在表示 不要的时侯，会用上最好不要.或做的时候要考虑等等字眼。然而，听在处于低语境文化的美国人耳里，这种拐弯抹角的说法并不等于不要做，而是恰恰相反，是表示事情也许还有考虑的余地的意思。这里造成的歧义，不可谓不大。 另一方面，来自高语境文化的人在顾及对方面子的同时，也极其希望从对方那里，得到同样的面子礼遇。了解这一点，对于来自低语境文化的人，包括欧美人士和受西方教育的新加坡人来说，尤为重要：与其说是雄辩滔滔、咄咄逼人，力求在言语用辞上压倒对方，不如采用同样的含蓄表达方式，加强自已用语的尊敬度，让对方感到你对他们的尊重和对其面子的照顾。能做到这一点，离交易的成功还会远吗？什么是“高语境文化”和“低语境文化”？ 从史表中，我们可以看到，日本、中国和中东诸国的文化均属高语境文化，而英美文化则属低语境文化。分属这两种不同语境文化的人在中国人相互沟通和交流时，会受各自的语境所制约而采用不同的语言运用和理解模式，也会因此而面对许多沟通上的问题。在高语境文化中，说话人用含蓄婉转的方式间接地表达自已的意思，期待听话人不仅能依赖上下文来理解自己的话，更能根据特定的社会环境、历史条件、社会关系甚至是宗教因素，对说话人的意图作出正确的判断和理解。在本文开头所示的例子中，我们可以看到，笔者新加坡朋友在中国的亲友们原是希望通过含蓄的推却方式，达到欲推还迎的表达效果，他们的思维方式和语言交际模式就是受着高语境中特定的谦让文化所制约，而这种交际方式在大陆的中国人之间，是很少会引起误解的。 低语境文化则恰恰相反。说话人遣词用字的原则是直接、精确、易于理解。说话人所言之语的字面意思与其背后的含义大致相等，故听话人无需结合太多的文化语境因素来揣摩、猜测说话人所要表达的意思。此外，处于低语境文化的人也希望对方能以直接的方式来理解自己所说的话。 在上述例子中的美国商人，就是来自处于低语境的美国文化，其思维方式和对言语的理解和运用都基于西方的交际语境，习惯对说话人的言语作出字面上的判断，没有去深究字面背后的人情风俗、社会关系、社会地位等一系列的因素，而理解不到位的问题也就因此而产生了。Cultural continuum, ranging according to the extent to which cultures depend on context 6.3.3 Comparisons between High-context Culture and Low-context Culture a. Examples of High- and Low-Context Cultures Low-Context Cultures High-Context Cultures Scandinavia Germany Switzerland North America Mediterranean Korea Vietnam Japan China Middle East Latin America b. Values of High- and Low-Context Cultures Low-Context (Individualistic) High-Context (Collective) Mastery over Nature Personal Control over the Environment Doing Future Orientation Change Time Dominates Human Equality Youth Self-Help Individualism/Privacy Competition Informality Directness/Openness/Honesty Practicality/Efficiency Materialism Harmony with Nature Fate Being Past or Present Orientation Tradition Focus on Relationships Hierarchy/Rank/Status Elders Birthright Inheritance Group Welfare Cooperation Formality Indirectness/Ritual/Face Idealism/Theory Spiritualism/Detachment c. CONTRASTING COMMUNICATION STYLES U.S./Australian Low context Cultures 1. Get down to business first 2. Value expertise and performance 3. Negotiations as efficient as possible 4. Agreement by specific, legalistic contract 5. Motives directly expressed 6. Communication is explicit, verbal 7. Informal 8. Spontaneous 9. Emotionally expressive 10. Self-promoting and ego-centric 11. Short-term and symmetrical reciprocity 12. Personal and public relationships are often separate Traditional Asian High context Cultures 1. Establish social trust first 2. Value personal relations and goodwill 3. Negotiations slow and ritualistic 4. Agreement by general trust 5. Motives indirectly expressed 6. Communication is implicit, non-verbal 7. Formal 8. Goal-oriented 9. Emotionally controlled 10. Self effacing and modest 11. Long-term and asymmetrical reciprocity 12. Personal and public relationships often overlap How to Determine Whether a Culture is High-context or Low-contex Determining If a Culture Is High or Low context High-Context Cultures Low-Context Cultures emphasize the need to dress nicely. Improper dress can insult the hosts or the occasion. Dress should also reflect your social standing. If youre in a hot climate and people arent wearing shorts, theyre high context. If teens and college students wear slacks instead of jeans, youre in a high context culture. Are the women wearing high heels instead of comfortable sandals even in the park? Then theyre high context! A majority of the verbal information is explicitly communicated. For example, an apology must be clearly articulated, whereas in a high-context culture the same message can be communicated through a variety of nonverbal gestures such as a smile, a sigh, a shrug, or a frown. Directness, openness, and honesty are valued, as is freedom of emotional * have indirect communication styles. Meaning can be found in many areas: symbolic gifts that indicate love, hate, friendship; a preference for saying yes when the answer is no or I dont know. They may not say I love you to their marital partner but convey the love in other ways. There is often a concern with not embarrassing another person by asking direct questions. Gestures may or may not be an integral part of the communication pattern. have a concern with such things as posture and other nonverbal communication, not just for the sake of good posture but because it conveys respect, good training from parents, etc. For example, in some high context cultures (like Thailand) it is disrespectful for lower status people to put their hands in their pockets when talking to a higher status person. have greetings that indicate deference to people of higher status (as with bowing in Japan or the wai in Thailand). place a high value on fitting in with what other people say and do (dress, manners, etc.) are usually shame cultures so behaviors are seen as reflecting on your family, your city/village and your country. expression. Spontaneity and casualness characterize informal relationships. Within this context, successful communication requires an understanding of the explicit and implicit norms of behavior. One of the implicit norms of behavior is that there is an acceptable physical distance to maintain when interacting with another person. The distance varies according to the kind of relationship and degree of familiarity with the individual. Questioning and challenging authority are both acceptable and encouraged. Questioning the teacher and authority figures suggests one has personal power and can help bring about change. Independence, self-determination, and personal power are highly valued. Nonverbal communication such as posture, gestures, and facial expressions communicate a wealth of information. For example, eye contact is perceived to be important in validating recognition and communicating interest. It is also perceived as assertive and suggests that one has nothing to hide. Time is considered a valuable commodity. Being on time is valued and tardiness is considered disrespectful. * have indirect communication styles. Meaning can be found in many areas: symbolic gifts that indicate love, hate, friendship; a preference for saying yes when the answer is no or I dont know. They may not say I love you to their marital partner but convey the love in other ways. There is often a concern with not embarrassing another person by asking direct questions. Gestures may or may not be an integral part of the communication pattern. have a concern with such things as posture and other nonverbal communication, not just for the sake of good posture but because it conveys respect, good training from parents, etc. For example, in some high context cultures (like Thailand) it is disrespectful for lower status people to put their hands in their pockets when talking to a higher status person. have greetings that indicate deference to people of higher status (as with bowing in Japa