语言学重点讲解.doc

三星级重点章节07年冬天，学校组织了一个讲座，请老师给我们谈考试重点，同时学生有什么问题，可以当面问他。他说前五章是最重要的，第七和第八次之，第六，第九和第十二章也有考的内容，但不会很多，剩下的十章和十一章可以不看！所以，我就用三颗星表示最重要；俩颗星表示第二重要，一颗星表示第三重要。王老师说只要把胡壮麟那本书背会了，肯定能考好！因为考试覆盖的知识点都在书上！其实，背会那本书是不实际的，而把那本书过5到6遍是可能的，也是必须的。而且重点章节要在理解的基础上反复看。虽然我们文科的知识，背时关键，但是理解更重要，尤其语言学这门课，比较抽象，不理解就背，效果不好，不容易背会。北语没有提供考纲之类的东西，只告诉语言学参考书是胡壮麟的语言学教程(修订版)。（09年不知是否会换成该书的第三版）所以能知道该书哪些章节是重点，能让我们有的放矢。我这里所说的三星级重点，即最重要的章节是该书的前五章。不知道外校的考生，他们学校开过这门课没有！我们北语大三下学期讲前五章，大四上学期讲的6，7，8，9，12这几章。下面，我们先谈谈前五章该如何复习。Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics；Chapter2: Speech Sounds；Chapter3: Lexicon；Chapter4: Syntax (新版中，这章改成From Word to Text，是变化最大的一章，变化的结果是比以前的简单了）；Chapter5: Meaning。这五章可以说是语言学的基础和考试的重点。我们一定要反复看，理解其中的定义等知识点。一定要在理解的基础上记忆。Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics这章是该书的开篇，目的是让大家对语言学这门课有个初步的了解，为后面几章作个铺垫。也许你会说这种章节肯定不重要。错！奇怪的是这一章居然很重要。因为考点还不少！Design features of language: Arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement. 这四个特征要求理解，牢记，能背出定义。能举出代表性的例子来支持定义。总之是非常重要。Functions of language: informative, interpersonal function, performative, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function, metalingual function. 这7个功能也得记住，而且理解。能举出例子。填空容易考其中一个。Important distinctions in linguistics: descriptive / prescriptive, synchronic / diachronic, langue / parole, competence / performance. Etic / Emic. 5对区别特征也非常重要，尤其前四对区别特征，他们几乎是学语言学的必备知识，连这个都不知道，以后就没法学习了!而且有俩对区别特征都是语言学的创始人索绪尔最先提出的。所以这些区别特征的定义等相关知识点都需要记住。最后那个区别特征Etic / Emic 不是特别重要，而且我看到新版语言学教程已经把这个特征删除了！Chapter2: Speech Sounds首先对Phonetics(语音学)和 phonology(音系学)俩个概念要区分下。语音学部分：发音器官还是要熟悉，也有助于后面语音描述的学习。另外，声带（vocal card）的三个位置（apart, closed together, totally closed），分别产生清音（voiceless），浊音（voived）和喉塞音（glottal stop）.这部分最重要的还算辅音和元音了。辅音要熟记发音部位和发音方法，能熟练的根据描述，写出对应的语音，或者能描述给出的辅音，这应该是必考得！元音的考察方式跟辅音一样。但元音考得个数少。10个小题里，可能是3个元音描述，7个辅音描述。最后就是coarticulation的定义和理解，举出例子。对什么是宽式标音（broad transcription）和窄式标音(narrow transcription) 也应该熟悉。音系学部分：理解通过最小对立体的分析，得出的音位(phonemes)的概念.记住音位phoneme 的定义；音位变体（allophones）的定义; 互补分布（complementary distribution）的定义. 音位过程(phonological process) 只要熟悉 Nasalization, Dentalization, Velarization, Devoicing 这四个就可以了，自己记几个例子，以防万一！大家也看过书了，音位过程这部分还有些其它知识，挺难的。对于你自己认为很艰涩难懂的东西，其实考试考得可能也不大。这是我们语言学任课老师说的。最后，剩下音节（syllables）了，虽然这个知识点放在本章的最后，以前我以为不重要，但08年，我们有个5分的定义题（definition）,就考了syllables的定义！所以大家对音节结构那块还是熟记下。Chapter3: Lexicon这章的第二节：The formation of word 和第三节 the lexical change 重要。对词素（morphemem）的定义，分类要熟记。Word 形成的俩种方式复合（compound）和派生（derivation）也要熟悉。另外语素变体(Allomorph) 的定义等也要熟悉。 词汇变化（the lexical change）这部分，介绍了7种词汇演变的方式，只要记住这7种方式，能给每个方式举个例子就可以了。最后的语义变化（semantic change）这部分，我觉得broadening, narrowing, meaning shift, class shift 需要了解下。Chapter4: Syntax这一章可以说是全书最难的章节。但新版的语言学教程把这章进行了彻底的改变！难度下降了很多。所以如果09年参考书改成新版的话，考生还是比较幸运的！这里，我把新旧俩版的第四章对比一下：旧版：The traditional approach: number, gender, case , tense 和aspect 要区别清楚。几个重要概念要背会：Concord, Government.The structural approach: 索绪尔提出的俩个重要概念：组合关系（syntagmatic relation）和聚合关系(paradigmatic relation)，他们的定义一定要在理解的基础上记住。索绪尔的另外俩个概念：能指（signified）和所指（signifier）也很重要。注意区分structure 和system. 因为前者体现了组合关系（syntagmatic relation）；后者体现了聚合关系(paradigmatic relation)。本章的另一个重点是直接成分分析法（IC analysis）。直接成分（immediate constitute）的定义应该记住。如果给你个句子，你要能够用IC analysis 分析。08年我们就考了这样一道题！这部分的另一个重点是向心结构（endocentric constructions）和离心结构（exocentric construction）。理解这两种结构，能够举出典型的例子。The generative approach: 第一个重点是deep structure 和surface structure. 要背会它们的定义。第二个重点是Chomskys 的转换生成语法理论。这部分特别抽象，理解难度大。那么同学们肯定要问，对于书里的这种知识，该掌握到什么程度呢？其实考试不会涉及这种特别难的东西。所以，转换生成理论这部分，大家只要背会the standard theory 和extended standard theory的图表。第三就是背会government 和binding的定义。理解c-command 就可以了。Chomsky的理论这部分知识难度大，一般都不是重点，因为我们老师说特别难的不考。而08年，最后一道大题，就是考的extended standard theory。整个卷子也有好几处考了Chomsky 的理论。所以我们考生去年考完都觉得语言学很偏，原因也就在此。 The functional approach: 了解布拉格学派（Prague school）, 和系统功能语法（systemic-functional grammar）.重点是主位（theme）和述位(rheme).他们的概念，以及句子中哪部分是主位，哪部分是述位。另一个知识点是交际动力（communicative dynamism）.新版：Chapter 4: From Word to Text. 第一节Syntactic relation:第二节Grammatical construction and its constituents第三节Syntactic function第四节Category第五节Phrase clause and sentence第六节Recursiveness第七节Beyond the sentence大家可以看到，新版和旧版已经完全不同了。Chapter5: Meaning (semantics-语义学) Meanings of “meaning”: 第一个重点是Leechs seven types of meaning: conceptual meaning, connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, collocative meaning, themantic meaning. 第二个重点是the referential theory 的概念，semantic triangle, sense and reference 的定义。第三个重点是sense relations: synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy. 着三种关系应该说很重要。 这章后面一部分内容了解即可。比如sentence meaning 那部分。二、二星级重点章节Chapter 7 language, culture and societyLanguage and culture: 语言与文化这部分其实是人类语言学。 需要记住：context of situation 的组成部分。重点是Sapir-Whorf hypotheses 的定义和理解。特别是语言相对论linuistic relativity和语言决定论linguistic determinism。Language and society: 语言与社会这部分就是社会语言学。会写社会语言学这个词：sociolinguistic. 这部分注意下communicative competence, linguistic sexism, women register.Chapter8: language in use (pragmatics 语用学) 这章的重点就是俩个理论：speech act theory 和 the theory of conversational implicature. 其中the theory of the illocutionary act, cooperative principle and its four maxims 要熟记。知道the violation of the maxims, the characteristics of implicature. 在post-gricean development 部分，比较重要的是relavence theory. 后面的内容了解即可。 三、一星级重点章节Chapter 6: language processing in mind 这章是心理语言学，考的几率很小。但又不能不复习这一章。谁也不能肯定这章肯定不考。比较重要的知识点：cohort theory, frequency effect, recency effects, garden path sentence, minimal attachment theory, schemata. Chapter 1. Invitation to linguisticsNatural vs artificial languagesI. The definition of LanguageII. Design features of languageIII. Functions of languageIV. The definition of linguistics:V. Main branches of linguisticsPhonetics:Phonology:Morphology:Syntax:Semantics:Pragmatics:Macrolinguistics:Psycholinguistics: Sociolinguistics:Anthropological linguistics: Computational linguistics: VI. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive vs prescriptive studiesSynchronic vs diachronic studiesLangue vs parole SaussureCompetence vs performance Chomsky(Communicative Competence:.)Etic vs emicSyntagmatic vs paradiamatic relationsChapter 2 Speech SoundsI. The three branches of phoneticsII. Speech organsvocal folds (cords)声带: glottis声门: apart (voiceless: /p/), closed together (voiced: /b/), totally closed (glottal stop: /?/)III. Segments, divergence, and phonetic transcriptionsIV. Consonants1) Manners of articulation2) Places of articulationBilabialLabiodentaldentalalveolarPalatoalveolarpalatalvelarglottalnasalmnplosivep b t dk fricativef vs z haffricatet dApproximant(w)rjwLateral l3) Voicing: 4) Nasal vs oral: 5)Pulmonic vs non-pulmonic:V. VowelsCardinal vowels: Monophthong vs diphthong or pure vowels vs glidings: /a/, /au/Schwa VI. Coarticulation and phonetic transcriptionCoarticulation协同发音:Anticipatory coarticulation逆化协同发音: Perseverative coarticulation接续性协同发音: Broad and narrow transcriptions 宽式和紧式音标: aspirated Diacritics:VII. Phonological analysisPhonemes音位:minimal pairs最小对立体: contrastive distribution对立分布: Allophones音位变体:complementary distribution互补分布: phonetic similarity语音相似性: pattern congruity模式一致性: Phonological processesAssimilation同化: regressive assimilation逆同化: progressive assimilation顺同化: Phonological processes:Voiced sound voiceless / voiceless _Epenthesis:Sibilant:Underlying form:The Elsewhere Condition:VIII. Distinctive featuresObstruents . Sonorants IX. Suprasegmental phonology超切分音系学SyllableSyllabic structures:onset; rhyme;nucleus or peak; codaopen syllable : Sentence stress: Pitch: Tones: Intonation: Chapter 3 LexiconI. What is wordThree senses of wordIdentification of wordLexeme: II. Classification of wordsVariable vs invariable wordsGrammatical vs lexical wordsClosed-class vs open-class wordsWord classes: New word classes identifiedParticles: Auxiliaries:Pro-forms: pro-adjectives:Pro-verbs:Pro-adverbs: pro-locative: Determiners: Pre-diterminers:Central determiners: Post-determiners:III. Formation of wordsMorpheme and morphologyMorphemes: Types of morphemes: free morphemes: bound morphemes: roots: free roots:bound roots:affixes: prefixes: suffixes: infixes: stems: Differences between inflectional affixes and derivational affixesInflection and word formationCompound: endocentric （向心的） and exocentric （离心的）DerivationPhonology and morphologymorpheme and phoneme2) morphemic structure and phonological structure3) allomorphmorphophonology or morphophonemics: The conditions of morpheme changephonologically conditionedmorphologically conditioneIV. lexical changesNew words (neologisms, coinages) are created in the following ways:V. Phonological changeVI. Semantic changeChapter 4 SyntaxI. The traditional approachCategories: Number: Gender: Case: Tense: Aspect: Degree: Concord: Government: II. The structural approachStructures and systemsImmediate constituent analysisLinear structures: Hierarchical structures:Construction: Constituent: Immediate constituents: IC Analysis: Advantages and disadvantages Endocentric and exocentric constructions:Exocentric constructions：Chapter 5 Meaning1. Meanings of meaningLeechs seven types of meaning:2. Word MeaningThe referential theory: Problems: The semantic triangle Sense reference Sense relationsSynonymy:Antonymy: Gradable antonymy: three features: Complementary antonymy: three featuresConverse antonymy Hyponymy: e.g. furniture (superordinate) desk, sofa, bed, chair, cupboard, etc. (hyponyms or co-hyponyms) Componential analysis:woman: HUMAN, ADULT, -MALE.Father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x) = x is the parent of y and x is male.Kill: CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (-ALIVE (y) = x causes y to become deadProblems with semantic componential analysis:Semantic field theory (lexical field theory) 3.Sentence meaningPredicate logic, predicate calculusProposition: a proposition has two parts:Truth valuePropositional logic composite proposition Negation Conjunction Disjunction Implication Equivalence Entailment: An integrated theory the principle of compositionality. According to this them, the semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rules. grammatical classification semantic information grammatical or syntactic markers. semantic markers and distinguishers. Problems:Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society1.Language and cultureNida:Firth:Theory of context of situation the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis:Linguistic determinism:Linguistic relativity: Culture in language classroomsThe objectives: Language and societyMonistic or autonomous pursuit of an independent science:Dualistic view:The factors that are believed to influence language behavior in a social context:a woman register :Linguistic sexism: Linguistic racism: Sociolinguistics to teachingCross-cultural Communion Suggestive Principles for Cross-cultural Communion:Chapter 8 language in use1.Speech act theoryPerformatives（言语行为句）and constatives（表述句）A theory of the illocutionary act3.The theory of conversational implicature（会话含义） Cooperative principle or CP Four categories of maxims: Violation of the maxims Characteristics of implicature4.Relevance theoryThe Q- and R-principles6.The Q-, I- and M-principles重点章Chapter 1. Invitation to linguisticsNatural vs artificial languagesI. The definition of LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.System：rule-governedArbitrary: no natural relationship between language elements and their meaning:A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.A sound must seem to be an echo to its sense.Vocal: speech is primarySymbol: related to arbitrariness, language elements are only the symbols for the meaning they expressHuman: uniquely human or human specific or species specificCommunication: the primary function of languageII. Design features of languageThe defining properties of language1.Arbitrariness: not entirely arbitrary:onomatopoeic words;compounds;derivatives;some surnames(Conventionality: the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.)2.Duality: the property of having two levels of structures, such that the units of the primary level are composed of the elements of the second level, and each level has its own rules of organization.3.Creativity: language users can understand and produce new sentences to express new meanings.4.Displacement: language can be used to talk about things that are not present(structure-dependent operations)III. Functions of languageFunctions: broad categories of language uses1.Informative: when language is used to express human experience and knowledge about the world.Declarative, interrogative, imperative2.Interpersonal function: when language is used to establish and maintain social relations3.Performative: when language is used to perform certain acts4.Emotive function: when language is used to change the emotional states of an audience or used to express the speakers emotions or attitudes towards something or some person.There were flashes of silence that made his speech perfectly delightful.This honorable gentleman is indebted to his memory for his jests and to his imagination for his facts.My husband has been sober several times in the past five years.It is so hot that we have to take off our flesh and sit in our bones.5.Phatic communion: occurs when language is used for pure interpersonal purposes, e.g. greetings, farewells, etc.6.Recreational function: when language is used for the pure joy of using it7.Metalingual function: when language is used to discuss itselfIV. The definition of linguistics: The scientific study of languageStop/top pipe play, wheel, light cap, mapV. Main branches of linguisticsPhonetics: the description, classification and transcription of speech soundsPhonology: the study of speech sounds as a system: the relations between speech sounds, the way in which speech sounds are related to meaning, the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech soundsMorphology: the internal structures of words Syntax: the internal structures of sentencesSemantics: the study of meaning as encoded in languagePragmatics: the study of language use, meaning in contextVI.Macrolinguistics: interdisciplinary Psycholinguistics: psychology and linguistics combined, the psychological process in language production, comprehension and acquisitionSociolinguistics: sociology and linguistics combined, social functions of language and the social characteristics of language users. language varieties and functionsAnthropological linguistics: anthropology and linguistics combined: the relationship between language and cultureComputational linguistics: the use of computers to process or produce human language: machine-translation, information retrieval, expert systemsVII. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive vs prescriptive studiesDescribing language as it is used by its native speakers is descriptive.Trying to lay down language rules for correct uses of language is prescriptiveModern linguistics is descriptive.Synchronic vs diachronic studiesStudying language as it is used at a particular point in time is a synchronic study.Studying language as it changes over time is a diachronic studyLangue vs parole SaussureLangue (language) is the language system: social, essential, stableParole is the actual use of the language system: individual, accidental, unstableCompetence vs performance ChomskyCompetence is the underlying knowledge about ones language.Performance is the actual use of that knowledge in language use situations.(Communicative Competence: knowledge of grammar and the pragmatic ability for language use.)Etic vs emicEtic studies aim at producing an exhaustive list of a linguistic phenomenon.Emic studies aims at knowing the relationships between the entities in that list.Syntagmatic vs paradiamatic relationsSyntagmatic relations are relations between units present in the same sequence or construction. Syntagmatically related elements form structures.Paradigmatic relations are relations between a unit and other units that can replace it in a given sequence. Paradigmatically related units form systems.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds(重点：看两遍，术语及常用音如b/p, f/v等，和这些常用音的特点)I. The three branches of phoneticsArticulatory phonetics: the study of sound productionAcoustic phonetics: the study of sound transmission between interlocutorsAuditory phonetics: the study of sound perceptionII. Speech organsLungs肺trachea (wind pipe)气管vocal folds (cords)声带: glottis声门: apart (voiceless: /p/), closed together (voiced: /b/), totally closed (glottal stop: /?/)tongue tip舌尖tongue blade舌叶tongue front舌前tongue back舌后tongue root舌跟epiglottis会厌hard palate硬颚soft palate (velum)软颚uvula小舌teeth 牙teeth ridge (alveolar ridge) 齿龈lips (labium)唇nose鼻larynx喉pharynx咽vocal tract声道III. Segments, divergence, and phonetic transcriptionsSegments: smallest components of speech: bit - /b/, /i/, /t/Divergence: no one-to-one correspondent between pronunciation and spelling: ou enough, house, through, though, etc.Phonetic transcription: international phonetic alphabetIV. ConsonantsConsonants: when there is an obstruction of t