批判性思维.ppt

,Critical Thinking And Argumentation,Welcome,Prof. 冯周卓 Office: 升华后栋703室,Mobile:E-mail: fezz,课 程 目 标,本课程主要介绍批判思维的基本知识，同时进行批判思维方法和论辩训练。批判思维是一种基于理性和逻辑的思维模式，它为人们进行理性思考提供了基本的平台和方法。批判思维要求思考者在分析问题的同时，也要反思自己的思维过程。批判思维能力不仅是从事学术研究的基本条件，也是人们从事各类工作应具备的基本素质。论辩是阐明真理、揭穿谬误的语言活动，掌握论辩方法有助于分清现实生活中特定问题的是非、曲直、真伪、优劣，是现代社会公民参政必备的素质之一。,“Study without reflection is a waste of time; reflection without study is dangerous.“ - Confucius,I am not a parrot!,PART1:了解我们的思维,Who am I?,自然思维：按照习惯或流行的观念来思考，通常是将自己固有的观念或信念来套所遇到的问题或现象，合者则肯定或接受，不合者则否定或拒绝。 批判思维：对所遇到的问题或现象先要存疑，再运用逻辑推论和相关充足理由来分析问题和现象，得出肯定或否定的结论。,一、自然思维与批判性思维,主体意识的形成过程,幼儿通过举手投足可以控制镜中的自我，这给幼儿带来了极大的快感，他只能通过镜中的自我来认识自己。在这个过程中，幼儿逐渐形成了自身的主体意识。,主体意识的形成过程,儿童在3岁以后，身边各色人物的动作、姿势、说话，使他进入一个早已存在的语言能指系统，在这个系统中找到各自的位置：我、你、他，男他、女她，父亲、母亲，工人、农民，老师、学生，等等。这就是所谓的“象征界”，即语言和社会文化的领域。,Can you find something wrong?,The scientists often place work above their personal lives, often neglect their husbands.,Critical Thinking is the general term given to a wide range of cognitive and intellectual skills needed to: Effectively identify, analyze, and evaluate arguments. Discover and overcome personal prejudices and biases. Formulate and present convincing reasons in support of conclusions. Make reasonable, intelligent decisions about what to believe and what to do.,Problem Solving Decision Making,Right,Left,Dont need to memorize definitions! Just understand and practice the core critical thinking skills emphasized in this course.,二、批判思维的用处,1.批判思维帮助 澄清思想要素 2.批判思维帮助 扩展你的想法 3.批判思维帮助 获得学术成就,批判思维帮助澄清思想的要素,ends and objectives, the status and wording of questions, the sources of information and fact, the method and quality of information collection, the mode of judgment and reasoning used, the concepts that make that reasoning possible, the assumptions that underlie concepts in use, the implications that follow from their use, and the point of view or frame of reference within which reasoning takes place.,一个对比不同假设的实例,Person One: Situation: “A man is lying in the gutter.” Assumption: “Only bums lie in gutters.” Inference: “That mans a bum.” Person Two: Situation: “A man is lying in the gutter.” Assumption: “Anyone lying in the gutter is in need of help.” Inference: “That man is in need of help.”,批判思维帮助扩展你的想法,In Science, Critical Thinking is used when you,Observe problem/phenomenon/conceive ideas Develop a hypothesis Make predictions: Formulate experiments Test Predictions: Carry out experiments/analyze data Draw conclusions from results, modify hypothesis Modify as needed and do again. Reject or confirm hypothesis The Scientific Method itself involves critical thinking VITAL for a scientist. Impressive for a science student Need to have time to read and think,Critical thinking vs. creative thinking,Critical and creative thinking are the two most basic thinking skills. Critical thinking is a matter of thinking clearly and rationally. Creativity consists in coming up with new and relevant ideas. To be a good and effective thinker, both kinds of thinking skills are needed. Creativity might be divided into two kinds. One is cognitive creativity that is involved in solving problems. The other is aesthetic creativity relating to artistic creation. This is of course not a sharp distinction, but critical thinking plays a more important role in the former.,Critical heuristics for creative thinking,Heuristic #1 : Feature list Heuristic #2 : Analogy Heuristic #3 : Search Heuristic #4 : Perspective shift Heuristic #5 :Comparation Heuristic #6 :Applying an old theory to a new domain Heuristic #7 :Coming up with new evidence supporting or refuting a theory Heuristic #8 :Improving the scope, accuracy or the predictive power of an old theory,CT enhances academic achievement,Analytical skills include both the ability to use good reasoning in analyzing a situation and also the ability to problem solve. Analytical skills also include seeing the arguments on both sides of an issue, even if you dont agree with them, and being able to analyze the merits of each argument. Critical and analytical skills are important parts of GRE and GMAT. The GRE Analytical Writing section consists of two distinct writing tasks: Present Your Perspective on an Issue , Analyze an Argument. The GMAT includes 3 sections: Verbal Reasoning, Quantitative, and Analytical Writing Assessment.,As an undergraduate you should,Evaluate how far materials are appropriate, and up-to-date. Evaluate how far the evidence or examples used in materials really proves the point that the author claims. Weigh up opinions, arguments or solutions against appropriate criteria. Think a line of reasoning through to its logical conclusion. Check for hidden bias or hidden assumptions. Check whether the evidence and argument really support the conclusions.,A case for analytical skills:,Supposing you have rain data for your town for the past thirty years, given to you at random , with no comments. You can organize the data chronologically, then draw a graph to demonstrate the data and then , by extending the graph along its closest fitting curve, you can make reasonable predictions about the extent of rain next year, assuming that all other factors remain steady.,三、批判思维与非批判思维的特点比较,四、Master critical thinking skills,A skill is the learned capacity to carry out pre-determined results often with the minimum outlay of time, energy, or both. Skills can often be divided into domain-general and domain-specific skills. Thinking (cognition) goes beyond the acquisition of knowledge and includes the process(es) of knowing and reflecting on thinking (metacognition). A process can be defined as “a logical series of related transactions that converts input to results or output” . The logical series can be analyzed as operational steps or principles which we call thinking skills.,Critical thinking 35 skills,A. Affective Strategies S-1 thinking independently S-2 developing insight into egocentricity or sociocentricity S-3 exercising fairmindedness S-4 exploring thoughts underlying feelings and feelings underlying thoughts S-5 developing intellectual humility and suspending judgment S-6 developing intellectual courage S-7 developing intellectual good faith or integrity S-8 developing intellectual perseverance S-9 developing confidence in reason,B. Cognitive Strategies-Macro-Abilities S-10 refining generalizations and avoiding oversimplifications S-11 comparing analogous situations: transferring insights to new contexts S-12 developing ones perspective: creating or exploring beliefs, arguments, or theories S-13 clarifying issues, conclusions, or beliefs S-14 clarifying and analyzing the meanings of words or phrases S-15 developing criteria for evaluation: clarifying values and standards S-16 evaluating the credibility of sources of information S-17 questioning deeply: raising and pursuing root or significant questions S-18 analyzing or evaluating arguments, interpretations, beliefs, or theories,S-19 generating or assessing solutions S-20 analyzing or evaluating actions or policies S-21 reading critically: clarifying or critiquing texts S-22 listening critically: the art of silent dialogue S-23 making interdisciplinary connections S-24 practicing Socratic discussion: clarifying and questioning beliefs, theories, or perspectives S-25 reasoning dialogically: comparing perspectives, interpretations, or theories S-26 reasoning dialectically: evaluating perspectives, interpretations, or theories,From Paul, Binker, Jensen, and Kreklau (1990),C. Cognitive Strategies-Micro-Skills S-27 comparing and contrasting ideals with actual practice S-28 thinking precisely about thinking: using critical vocabulary S-29 noting significant similarities and differences S-30 examining or evaluating assumptions S-31 distinguishing relevant from irrelevant facts S-32 making plausible inferences, predictions, or interpretations S-33 evaluating evidence and alleged facts S-34 recognizing contradictions S-35 exploring implications and consequences (p. 56),Logic,Clarity,Precision,Accuracy,Depth,Significance,Fairness,五、The standards of critical thinking,Breadth,Relevance,1LOGIC逻辑性: When we think, we bring a variety of thoughts together into some order. When the combination of thoughts are mutually supporting and make sense in combination, the thinking is “logical.“ Does all this make sense together? Does your first paragraph fit in with your last? Does what you say follow from the evidence?,Does this really make sense? Does that follow from what you said? How does that follow? But before you implied this and now you are saying that; how can both be true?,Superman sees through anything. Superman sees through walls. Superman sees through You.,When the combination of thoughts are mutually supporting and make sense in combination, the thinking is “logical. “,May the force be with you.,Logic,2Clarity明确性: Understandable, the meaning can be grasped. Could you elaborate further? Could you give me an example? Could you illustrate what you mean?,Could you elaborate further on that point? Could you express that point in another way? Could you give me an illustration? Could you give me an example?,Clarity is the gateway standard,Help you I can, yes.,Clarity,3Accuracy准确性: A statement can be clear but not accurate, as in “Most dogs are over 300 pounds in weight.“ How could we check on that? How could we find out if that is true? How could we verify or test that?,Is that really true? How could we check that? How could we find out if that is true?,Source: /tresources/content/Ruland-CriticalThinkingStandards.pdf,This chicken weighs over 300 pounds.,A statement can be clear but not accurate,Powerful you have become, the dark side I sense in you.,Accuracy,4PRECISION精确性: A statement can be both clear and accurate, but not precise, as in “Jack is overweight.“ Could you be more specific? Could you give me more details? Could you be more exact?,Could you give more details? Could you be more specific?,Source: /tresources/content/Ruland-CriticalThinkingStandards.pdf,A statement can be both clear and accurate, but not precise,Size matters not.,Yao Ming is TALL!,Precision,5Relevance相关性: A statement can be clear, accurate, and precise, but not relevant to the question at issue. How does that relate to the problem? How does that bear on the question? How does that help us with the issue?,How is that connected to the question? How does that bear on the issue?,Source: /tresources/content/Ruland-CriticalThinkingStandards.pdf,I studied hard all semester, therefore I should get A+.,A statement can be clear, accurate, and precise, but not relevant to the question at issue.,You must unlearn what you have learned.,Relevance,6Depth深度: Containing complexities and multiple interrelationships. What factors make this a difficult problem? What are some of the complexities of this question? What are some of the difficulties we need to deal with?,How does your answer address the complexities in the question? How are you taking into account the problems in the question? Is that dealing with the most significant factors?,Grave danger you are in. Impatient you are.,A statement can be clear, accurate, precise, and relevant, but superficial.,Depth,7Breadth广度: Encompassing multiple viewpoints. Do we need to look at this from another perspective? Do we need to consider another point of view? Do we need to look at this in other ways?,Do we need to consider another point of view? Is there another way to look at this question? What would this look like from a conservative standpoint? What would this look like from the point of view of.?,That is why you fail.,A line of reasoning may be clear, accurate, precise, relevant, and deep, but lack breadth.,Headache!,You got 0 marks for “Participation”, because you didnt participate in the class discussion at all.,Breadth,8. Significance意义： Focusing on the important, not trivial. Is this the most important problem to consider? Is this the central idea to focus on? Which of these facts are most important?,9. Fairness公正： Justifiable, not self-serving or one-sided. Do I have any vested interest in this issue? Am I sympathetically representing the viewpoints of others,Critical thinking demands that our thinking be fair. Open-minded Impartial Free of distorting biases and preconceptions,Difficult to achieve, but you must try!,Fair-mindedness is an essential attribute of a Critical Thinker.,Fairness,Profile of a Critical Thinker,Five Powerful Barriers to Critical Thinking:,Egocentrism,Unwarranted Assumptions,Sociocentrism,Relativistic Thinking,Wishful Thinking,I am probably the greatest thinker since Socrates!,Barriers to Critical Thinking,以经济适用房为例分析思考的要素,1.The problem or question at issue. 2.The purpose or goal of the thinking. 3.The frame of reference or points of view involved. 4.Assumptions made. 5.Central concepts and ideas involved. 6.Principles or theories used. 7.Evidence, data, or reason advanced. 8.Interpretations and claims made. 9.inferences, reasoning, and lines of formulated thought. 10.Implications and consequences which follow.,讨论题： 从部分大学生难找工作看大学是否值得上。,Critical Thinking And Argumentation,Welcome,Prof. 冯周卓 Office: 升华后栋703室,Mobile:E-mail: fezz,PART 2: Start thinking from problem,Asking good questions is difficult but rewarding work. Your time is valuable. Before taking the time to critically evaluate an issue, ask the question, “Who cares?” Questions help you explore dimensions of a problem. Questions help you explore your available options. Questions help you identify your goals and intentions.,一、thinking is a process of asking and answering questions,When a writer or speaker has a conclusion she wants you to accept, she must present reasons to persuade you that she is right and to show you why. Reasons provide answers for our human curiosity about why someone makes a particular decision or holds a particular opinion. So, question comes from asking the reasons.,Those three claims are each missing something. We may or may not agree with them, but in their current form they are neither weak nor strong. None of the claims contains an explanation or rationale for why we should agree. Thus, if we heard someone make one of those three assertions, we would be left hungry for more.,Every class should conclude with student evaluations. A pig is smarter than a mule. Employers should be able to fire any employee who refuses to take a drug test.,What is missing is the reason or reasons responsible for the claims. Reasons are beliefs, evidence, metaphors, analogies, and other statements offered to support or justify conclusions. They are the statements that together form the basis for creating the credibility of a conclusion.,二、Question determines the direction of thinking,“名人（黄馨蔓、张纪中、马云等）为什么会成为李一道士的弟子？” 这个问题的预设是：名人是高智商的，不会轻易被谎言和迷信所蒙骗。这个预设引导你去思考名人与轻信的关系。,Weak questions are disempowering. They keep your focused on your own ego, your problems, and your shortcomings. Weak questions keep you focused on whats wrong on what isnt working. Strong questions are empowering. They keep you focused on solutions, on what you can control. When you focus on what you can do, you avoid falling into analysis paralysis.,Most people ask lousy questions that cripple their results. Lousy questions turn your focus away from what you want and towards more of what you dont want. And since we ask and answer mental questions every day, our questions wield great power over our results.,Situation: Upon waking up early Weak: Can I fall back asleep again? Should I go back to bed? Strong: What would be the best way to start my day? How can I energize myself? Where can I find something inspirational or motivational to read right now?,Weak: What foods am I going to have to give up? How am I going to deal with the deprivation? Am I going to have to eat like this forever? Strong: What foods that I like will I get to eat more of? What new foods can I experiment with? Wont it be great when I reach my goal weight? Wont it be wonderful to finally master this area of my life once and for all? Once I succeed at this, who else can I help?,Situation: When considering a dietary improvement,Weak: Have I done enough that I can justify quitting for the day? Is this a good time to stop? Can I finish this tomorrow? Strong: Whats next? How can I complete one more task? How much more can I get done today?,Situation: Nearing the end of the workday,Weak: How can I avoid looking like an idiot? What should I talk about? How can I keep from being too nervous or shy? How did I get myself into this situation? Can I get out of going? Strong: Wont it be fun to meet some interesting new people? If I see someone there whos a bit shy, what can I do to make him/her feel more comfortable? What can I expect others at this event to have in common with me?,Situation: When facing an unfamiliar social situation,Weak: Why do I feel so down? Why cant I be happy? How come I never get any time to myself? Strong: What can I do to energize myself? Who can I talk to that would help cheer me up? What can I read or listen to that would inspire me? Are these feelings trying to tell me something should I go journal about them? How long can I hold a fake smile before it forces me to start feeling good again?,Situation: When feeling depressed, anxious, or otherwise negative,三、Questions are more important than solving problem,“Learn from yesterday, live for today, hope for tomorrow. The important thing is not to stop questioning.” “If I had an hour to solve a problem and my life depended on the answer, I would spend the first 55 minutes figuring out the proper questions to ask. For if I knew the proper questions, I could solve the problem in less than 5 minutes.” Einstein,1. What is the problem?