工商专业英语

The concert of utilityEconomists first began to analyze consumer behavior over a century ago when it was fashionable in psychological circles, to assert that much of human behavior could be explained by peoples desire to realize as much “pleasure” and to avoid as much “pain” as possible. The pleasure-pain doctrine was quickly borrowed by economists and applied to the sphere of consumer expenditures in what became the first systematic theory of motivated consumer behavior; the basic economic thesis was that rational consumers would, quite intentionally, manage their purchases of goods and services so as to realize the greatest possible amount of overall total “satisfaction”. Economists labeled the want-satisfying power of goods and services as “utility”.经济学家开始超过一个世纪前当它是时尚心理界断言很多人的行为可以解释人民的愿望实现一样高兴地，尽可能避免一样痛苦的分析消费者行为。 快乐痛学说是快速借入的经济学家和消费者支出在什么成为动机的消费者行为 ； 第一次系统理论领域的应用 基本经济论文是理性的消费者会很有意，管理其购买的商品和服务，以实现整体总额满意的最大可能量。 经济学家标记为实用程序的想要满足货物和服务的权力。 The concept of utility refers to the pleasure or satisfaction associated with having, using, consuming, or benefiting from goods or services. The utility inherent in a good or service derives from whatever qualities it has that that gives it want-satisfying capabilities. The sources and causes of utility are legion: better health, esthetic, beauty, or design, ease of use, flavor, and taste, durability, convenience, luxury, comfort, a sense of individuality, pleasure, prestige, status, pride, security, ego, gratification, and power-to mention the most obvious. Hence, utility has both objective and subjective features and, most particularly, utility is a matter of individual taste, preference, perception, personality makeup, and state of mind.实用程序的概念是指高兴或满意与人造卫星、 使用、 消费，或受益于货品或服务相关联。 固有的一个良好的实用程序或服务从任何素质了，这使它想要满足的能力。 源和实用程序的原因是军团： 更好地健康、 审美、 美或设计，易于使用、 风味和品味，耐久性、 方便、 豪华、 舒适、 有个性、 快乐、 信誉、 状态、 骄傲、 安全、 自我、 满足，和电源，更不用说最明显。 因此，实用程序有客观和主观的功能，最特别的是，实用程序是一个个人的品味、 首选项、 知觉、 人格的构成和心态的问题。 As a consequence, the utility that a good possesses or is perceived to possess is variable, not absolute. In the first place, no two people necessarily will view a good as having the same degree of want-satisfying powers-one person may derive great utility from smoking cigarettes while someone else finds them distasteful; Cadillacs may be important status symbols to some people( and hence have great utility ), yet have little or no appeal to other people. Different people buy the same product for quite different uses and motivations. Peanuts, for instance, are bought by some people to serve at cocktail parties, by others to make peanut brittle, and by some to feed to squirrels, with potentially, different utilities to each buyer in each case. Moreover, the utility of a good can vary from time to time, or place to place. Rising gasoline prices quickly modified the utility many people placed on small cars. Wool clothing does not have the same utility or want-satisfying powers for people living in short-winter climates as for those living in long-winter climates. But irrespective of the wide variations that different persons may place on the utility of a good or service, the utility concept offers a purposeful basis for establishing consumer preferences for what and how much they will purchase because it leads to comparisons of the amounts of satisfaction received from different consumption rates of different goods and services.作为一个结果，一个好的拥有或被认为拥有的实用程序是变量，不是绝对。 在第一位没有两个的人一定会查看好有相同程度的想要满足权力一人可以获得很大实用程序从吸烟时其他人认为他们令人反感 ； 凯迪拉克可能是重要的状态符号，有些人 （并因此有很大的实用程序） 尚未有很少或没有提出上诉，给其他人。 不同的人购买相同产品的相当不同的用途和动机。 花生，例如是买的一些人在鸡尾酒会服务、 由他人花生的脆性和一些可能，与给松鼠，不同的实用程序，以在每种情况下每个买方的。 此外，一个良好的实用程序可能会有所不同，不时或地方的。 上升的汽油价格快速修改很多人对小型车的实用程序。 羊毛服装并没有相同的实用程序或想要满足的权力的人生活在那些生活在长冬季气候条件下短冬季气候。 但不论宽变化，不同的人可能放在一个良好的实用程序或服务的实用程序概念提供了有针对性的基础建立什么和多少，他们将购买因为它会导致收到不同消费率的不同的货品和服务的满意度量的比较研究消费者的喜好。 It is, of course, doubtful that the intensity of satisfaction one gains from an item can be represented precisely in cardinal rankings whereby numerical values are assigned to represent utility. One may say that “broiled lobster is my favorite food” or “I enjoy broiled lobster more than any other seafood or meat”; but if asked “how much do you enjoy broiled lobster?” one can scarcely reply “about 17” and except to convey understanding. The subjective nature of the utility concept is, however, susceptible to ordinal ranking measure. In ordinal preference patterns, one only has to be able to rank alternatives-from highest to lowest, best to worst, or most satisfying to least satisfying; no attempt is made to quantify the amount by which one alternative is better ( or worse ) than others.当然，这是令人怀疑的人从项目获得的满意的强度正是参加基数排名的数字值，使分配给代表实用程序。 可以说是烤的龙虾是我最喜欢的食物或比任何其他海鲜或肉类，我享受烤的龙虾； 但如果问你多少享受烤的龙虾？一个几乎可以回复约 17，除了转达的理解。 然而，实用程序概念的主观性质是容易序号排名措施。 一个将只有能够秩替代序号首选项的模式-从最高到最低，最好到最坏，或至少满足 ； 最令人满意 没有尝试量化的一种替代方法是更好或更糟的量比其他人。 Despite the fact that utility is not subject to precise quantification, it is still analytically useful to assume that utility can be represented by cardinal numbers. Doing so makes it easier to illuminate several important aspects of consumer behavior.尽管实用程序不受精确量化这个事实仍然解析，很有用承担实用程序可以由红衣主教的数字。 这样做容易照亮的消费行为的几个重要方面。How markets functionA critical part of examining the market for a product is the structure of competitionwhether there are many or few sellers in the industry. The terms “many” and “few” are delineated not so much by the numbers of firms as by the competitive interaction among firms. There are “many” sellers of a product when no one firm has a big enough volume of business or enjoys high enough standing as a market leader for the remaining firms to react to its action. Each firm is small enough and insignificant enough in the context of the whole market that it is virtually an anonymous entity, hidden by sheer numbers from the watchful eyes of other firms. In contrast, we say there are “few” sellers of a product whenever the actions of any one firms will be noticed and reacted to by rival sellers. “Few” means few enough so that firms find it imperative to follow each others moves closely. Fewness of sellers also means that each firm is large relative to the size of the market in which it operates; often, when firms are few in number each firms is large in absolute size a well. The single-firm industry, or monopoly, is the limiting case of fewness.检查市场的一种产品的竞争结构的重要组成部分 在业界中是否有很多或少卖家。 很多和少的职权范围划定不是公司的人数由企业之间竞争的互动。 有一种产品的多卖时没有一个公司有足够大的卷的业务或高享有足够作为对其行动作出反应的其余企业的市场领导者的地位。 每个公司是足够小，和足够微不足道，它实际上是一个纯粹的警惕眼睛的其他公司的数字被隐藏的匿名实体的整个市场的上下文中。 在相反，我们说有一种产品的几卖家只要任何一个公司的行动将会注意到，对竞争对手的销售商所作出的反应。 少指几个够，以便公司找到它必须密切注视对方的移动。 卖家的欲望少还意味着每个公司是相对于市场的运作 ； 大小大 通常，数量少公司时每个公司是大一井的绝对大小。 单公司行业或垄断，是欲望少的限制情况。A second key element in market analysis relates to whether the products of sellers are identical or differentiated. The products of sellers may de considered to be identical whenever and wherever customers evidence no particular preference for one firms product over that of another firm. This may arise because the item is produced by a process that confers certain measurable qualities which can be graded and which are unrelated to the seller producing it. For instance, choice-grade beef, and one cannot tell(nor does it really matter)whether it came from ranch A or ranch B. In such cases, the products of firms in an industry tend to be perfect substitutes; examples include cotton, sulfuric acid, natural gas, coal, cement, and coffee beans.在市场分析中的第二个关键元素涉及到产品的销售商是否相同或不同。 产品的销售商可能德被认为是相同时，无论客户的证据没有特定的首选项，一间公司的产品在另一家公司的。 这可能因为该项目由一个赋予某些可衡量的素质，可以分级的哪些是无关，卖方生产的过程。 为实例，选择级牛肉，另一个不能告诉 （也真的不重要） 是否是来自牧场 A 或 B.牧场 在这种情况下公司在行业中的产品往往要完美替代品 ； 示例包括棉、 硫酸、 天然气、 煤、 水泥和咖啡。On the other hand , where the products of firms are distinctive and somewhat unique, they are not perfect substitutes for one another, and buyers may have good reason to prefer the product of one firm over that of another. However, the ultimate test of differentiation is in the mind of the buyer, and the perceived difference in the products of various firms may be either real or contrived. “Real” differences involving performance, materials, design, workmanship, and service are obviously important aspects of product differentiation. But “contrived” differences brought about by brand names, trademarks, packaging, and advertising can also be important to buyers; for example, even though all brands of aspirin are chemically alike, many buyers evidence preference for one brand over others.在另一方面，公司的产品是有点独特、 别具特色、 它们不是为一个一个的完美替代品和买家可能有充分的理由，喜欢比另一间公司的产品。 但是，分化的最终测试是的买方的心目中，各公司的产品在感知的差异可能是真实或预谋。 真正材料、 设计、 工艺和服务的涉及性能的差异是产品差异化的明显重要的方面。 但是预谋差异带来的品牌名称、 商标、 包装，和广告也可以是重要的买家 ； 例如即使所有品牌的阿司匹林都是化学相似，很多买家对其他证据一品牌的首选项。In addition, it should be recognized that a firms product extends beyond the physical and functional characteristics of the item itself. Although a large number of retailers in an area may sell Crest toothpaste, they may not be viewed as equally attractive to buyers of Crest. The sales clerks in one store may be more courteous, or its location more convenient, or its checkout system faster, or its delivery service more dependable, or its credit terms more accommodating. Such factors can cause buyers to prefer one seller over another, even though the item purchased is the name. the various brands of shoes, wines, cereal, cosmetics, tires, and soft drinks are all examples of differentiated products.在另外应认识到一家公司的产品超出项目本身的物理和功能特性。 尽管大量的一个地区的零售商可能卖顶牙膏，他们可能不被看作是同样吸引买家的表。 在一个存储区中的销售人员可能会更有礼貌，或其位置更方便或更快，其签出系统或其提供的服务更可靠或其更宽松的信贷条件。 等因素可能导致买家喜欢在另一个卖方，即使该项购买是名称。 鞋、 葡萄酒、 谷类食品、 化妆品、 轮胎和软性饮料的各种品牌是有区别的产品的所有实例。As might be expected, competition proceeds along different lines, depending on whether there are “many” or “few” firms and whether their products are identical or differentiated. Viewed from this perspective, four main forms of market structure and organization stand out:1. Perfect competition-many sellers of a standardized product.2. Monopolistic competition-many sellers of a differentiated product.3. Oligopoly-few sellers of either a standardized or a differentiated product.4. Monopoly-a single seller of a product for which there is no close substitute. 可以预料竞争收益取决于是否不同沿线有多或少的公司和他们的产品是否相同或不同。 此眼光四种主要形式的市场结构和组织站出来： 完善竞争-一个标准化的产品很多卖家。 垄断竞争-一个有区别的产品很多卖家。 寡头垄断-几个卖家的标准化或有区别的产品。 垄断-单个卖方的有的产品是没有密切的替代。Outlays and Components of DemandIn the previous sections, we started with GNP and asked how much of the value of goods and services produced actually gets into the hands of households. In this section we present a different perspective on GNP by asking who buys the output, rather than who receives the income. More technically, we look at the demand for output and speak of the components of the aggregate demand for goods and services.Total demand for domestic output is made up of four components:(1)consumption spending by household;(2)investment spending by business or household;(3)government (federal, state, and local)purchases of goods and services;(4)foreign demand. We shall now look more closely at each of these components.在前面的章节我们开始与本地居民生产总值及要求的货物和服务的价值有多少实际获取到家庭的手中。 在这一节中，我们介绍一个不同的角度对国民生产总值的问谁买的输出，而不是接收人的收入。 更多从技术上讲我们看看输出的需求和发言的货物和服务的总需求的组件。 国内产出的总需求四个组件组成： (1) 消费开支，由家庭 ； (2) 业务或家庭开支的投资 ； (3) 政府 （联邦、 州，和本地） 采购的货物和服务 ； （4） 外国的需求。 我们须现在看更密切的每一这些组件。Consumption Table 2-1 presents a breakdown of the demand for goods and services in 1982 by components of demand. The table shows that chief component of demand is consumption spending by the personal sector. This includes anything from food to golf lessons, but involves also, as we shall see in discussing investment, consumer spending on durable goods such as automobiles -spending which might be regarded as investment rather than consumption.表 2-1 的组件的需求提供的货物和服务的需求，于 1982 年的分项数字。 下表显示了该总需求的组件是消费开支的个人的部门。 这包括任何从高尔夫球的教训的食物，但也，涉及我们将看到在讨论耐用物品如汽车-可能，会被视为投资，而不是消费支出上的消费开支的投资。Government Next in importance we have government purchases of goods and services. Here we have such items as national defense expenditures, road paving by state and local governments, and salaries of government employees.We draw attention to the use of certain words in connection with government spending. We refer to government spending on goods and services as purchases of goods and services, and we speak of transfers plus purchases as government expenditure. The federal government budget, of the order of $650 billion, refers to federal government expenditure. Less than half that sum is for federal government purchases of goods and services.下一步的重要性我们政府采购货物和服务。 在这里我们有国防的开支等项目道路铺的国家和地方的政府和政府雇员的薪水。 我们提请注意某些词的政府开支的使用。 政府采购货物和服务，对商品和服务支出，我们将和我们说话的传输以及政府开支为购买。 联邦政府预算司长 650 亿元的顺序指的是联邦政府的开支。 联邦政府采购货物和服务的不到一半的款项。Investment Goss private domestic investment requires some definitions. First, throughout this book, investment means additions to the physical stock of capital. As we use the term, investment does not include buying a bond or purchasing stock in General Motors. Practically, investment includes housing construction, building of machinery business construction, and additions to a firms inventories of goods高斯私人国内投资需要一些定义。 首先，在此的书整个投资意味着资本的物理库存补充。 我们使用术语，投资不包括购买债券或购买股票的汽车。 实际上，投资包括住房建设、 建设机械业务建设，与一家公司的库存货物的补充。The classification of spending as consumption or investment remains to a significant extent a matter of convention. From the economic point of view, there is little difference between a household building up an inventory of peanut butter and a grocery store doing the same. Nevertheless, in the national income accounts, the individuals purchase is treated as a personal consumption expenditure, whereas the stores purchase is treated as investment in the form of inventory investment. Although these borderline cases clearly exist, we can apply a simple rule of thumb: that investment is associated with the business sectors adding to the physical stock of capital, including investment. 作为消费或投资开支的分类，在很大程度上仍然是公约的一个问题。 从经济的角度有相差家庭建立一个库存的花生黄油和一家杂货店做同样的工作。 然而，在国民收入的帐户个人购买被视为一项个人消费开支而存储的购买被视为投资的库存投资形式。 虽然显然存在这些边界的情况下，我们可以应用简单的经验法则： 投资商业部门与相关联的添加物理的资本，包括投资股票。Similar issues arise in the treatment of household sector expenditures. For instance, how should we treat purchases of automobiles by households? Since automobiles usually last for several years, it would seem sensible to classify household purchases of automobiles as investments. We would then treat the use of automobiles as providing consumption services. (we could think of imputing a rental income to owner-occupied automobiles.) However, the convention is to treat all household expenditures as consumption spending. This is not quite so bad as it might seem, since the accounts do separate households purchases of durable goods like cars and refrigerators from their other purchases. When consumer spending decisions are studied in detail, expenditures on consumer durables are usually treated separately.住户开支治疗会出现类似的问题。 例如应如何看待购买汽车的家庭？ 由于汽车通常最后几年来，似乎合理分类家庭购买的汽车作为投资。 然后，我们会将汽车的使用视为提供消费服务。 （我们可能认为的输入，自住汽车的租金收入。 公约 却将所有家庭开支视为消费开支。 这不是那么糟，似乎，帐户自做单独家庭购买耐用物品的喜欢车和从其他购买电冰箱。 当消费者开支决定详细研究时，耐用消费品支出是通常分开处理。In passing, we note that in Table 2-1, investment is defined as “gross” and “domestic.” It is gross in the sense that depreciation is not deducted. Net investment is gross investment plus the other categories of spending in Table 2-1.The term domestic means that this is investment spending by domestic residents, but is not necessary spending on goods produced within this country. It may well be an expenditure that falls on foreign goods. Similarly, consumption and government spending may also be partly for imported goods. On the other hand, some of domestic output is sold to foreign.顺带一提，我们注意到在表 2-1 投资被定义为严重和住。 总折旧不中扣除的意义。 投资净额是总投资，加上其它类别的开支表 2-1。 国内一词是指这是投资开支的国内居民，但在这个国家内不必要的开支，对货物生产。 它可能是一个属于外国商品上的开支。 同样，消费和政府开支也可能是部分的进口货物。 另外一方面一些国内的输出是销往国外。Net exportsThe item “Net exports” appears in table 2-1 to show the effects of domestic spending on foreign goods and foreign spending on domestic goods on the aggregate demand for domestic output. The total demand for the goods we produce includes exports, the demand from foreigners for our goods. It excludes imports, the part of our domestic spending that is not for our own goods. Accordingly, the difference between exports and imports, called net exports, is a component of the total demand for our goods. 网络出口一项显示在表 2-1 显示的外国商品的国内开支的影响和外国开支对国内货物的国内产出的总需求。 我们生产的货物的总需求包括港产品出口的外国人为我们的货物的需求。 它不包括进口、 开支，我们国内的部分不是我们自己的产品。 因此，出口进出口称为.在港产品净出口之间的区别是我们的货物的总需求的一个组成部分。The point can be illustrated with an example. Assume that instead of having spent $1,992 billion, the personal sector had spent $20 billion more. What would GNP have been? If we assume that government and investment spending had been the same as in Table 2-1, we might be tempted to say that GNP would have been $20 billion higher. That is correct if all the additional spending had fallen on our goods. The other extreme, however, is the case where all the additional spending falling on imports. In that event, consumption would be up $20 billion and net exports would be down $20 billion, with no net effect on GNP. 用一个示例，可以说明这一点。 假设而不是花 1,992 亿元个人部门花了更多 20 亿元。 将本地居民生产总值有哪些？ 如果我们假定政府和投资开支已是相同如表 2-1，我们可能会忍不住要说本地居民生产总值便高 20 亿元。 这就是正确的如果对我们的产品的所有其他开支下降。 另一极端，不过是这种情况在所有其他开支下降进口。 该事件中消费将最多 20 亿元，净出口会下 20 亿元，没有对国民生产总值的净影响Macroeconomic Policy Policy makers have at their command two broad classes of policies with which to affect the economy. Monetary policy is controlled by the Federal Reserve System (the Fed). The instruments of monetary policy are changes in the stock of money, changes in the interest ratethe discount rateat which the Fed lends money to banks, and some controls over the banking system. Fiscal policy is under the control if the Congress, and usually is initiated by the executive branch of the government. The instruments of fiscal policy are tax rates and government spendi