对伊丽莎白一世与武则天不同评价之文化比较.doc

对伊丽莎白一世与武则天不同评价之文化比较作者：admin来源：hq 时间：2010-6-21 点击： 标签：对伊丽莎白一世与武则天不同评价之文化比较 分页： 1 A Cultural Comparison of Different Comments on Elizabethand Wu ZetianI. IntroductionIn the long humans history, there rarely appears famous women or even the female rulers. Most of the countries on the earth are ruled by men for they are poweful and ambitious. So it is very difficult for those women who want to rule a country instead of men. There were two women who were both intelligent and fabulous. Their names are Elizabeth and Wu Zetian. China and England were both Feudal countries, however, their womens social status and education were so different.The two women both made significant contributions to their countries such as economy, politician, arts, etc. Though they were two intelligent female rulers under whose reigns their countries appears flourishing people have different attitudes towards them. This article is written to analyze the deep reasons which formed these phenomenons in England and China from different perspectives.II. Comments on Elizabethand Wu ZetianElizabeth and Wu Zetian are both great females who made contributions to each countries. But their people have different comments on them.2.1 A Brief Introduction to Elizabeth The first Queen Elizabeth, whose name has become a synonym for the era which she dominated (1558-1603), was born in 1533 to Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. Called “Gloriana” by Edmund Spenser in “The Faerie Queene”, Elizabeths deft political skills and strong personal character were directly responsible for putting England (at the time of her accession in 1558 a weak, divided backwater far outside the mainstream of European power and cultural development) on the road to becoming a true world economic and political power and restoring the countrys lost sense of national pride. Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of theTudor dynasty and her reign is known as the “Elizabeth Era” famous above all for the flourishing of English drama, led by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, and for the seafaring prowess of English adventurers such as Francis Drake. Under her reign England strengthened its marine militaty and domestic union .2.1.1 Positive Comments on Elizabeth IMost of English historicians think Elizabeth are great, intelligent, pure Queen. Within 2o years of her death, she was being celebrated as the ruler of a golden age, an image that retains its hold on the English people. During Elizabeths 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity.In 2005, the History Channels documentary that historicians analyzed the twelve England monorchs and graded them depending on their military force and influence, etc. Elizabeth ranked number 1 and was thought as the greatest monarch of England. As a woman how did she manage England so well and led England to the flourishing road? Just like most historicians praise her that she is a intelligent woman. In fact she was a brilliant woman who showed great wisdom by refusing to directly antagonize Parliament. One of her mottoes was “video et taceo”(I see, and say nothing). This strategy, viewed with impatience by her counsellors, often saved her from political and marital misalliances. She acquired undying devotion from her advisement council, who were constantly perplexed by her habit of waiting to the last minute to make decisions. She used the various factions, playing one off another until the exhausted combatants came to her for resolution of their grievances. Few English monarchs enjoyed such political power, while still maintaining the devotion of the whole of English society.Elizabeths reign was one of the more constructive periods in English history. Her intelligence and courage also could be found in her attitudes towards domestic religious problems and aboard affence. Elizabeth inherited a tattered realm: dissension between Catholics and Protestants tore at the very foundation of society; the royal treasury had been bled dry by Mary and her advisors, Marys loss of Calais left England with no continental possessions for the first time since the arrival of the Normans in 1066 and many Catholics doubted Elizabeths claim to the throne. Continental affairs added to her problems - France had a strong foothold in Scotland, and Spain, the strongest European nation at the time, posed a threat to the security of the realm. Elizabeth proved most calm and calculating, employing capable and distinguished men to carrying out royal prerogative. Her first order of business was to eliminate religious unrest. She was, however, compelled to take a stronger pro-Protestant stance when events demanded it. The situation with Mary Queen of Scots was most vexing to Elizabeth. Mary, in Elizabeths custody beginning in 1568, gained the loyalty of Catholic factions and instituted several-failed assassination plots against Elizabeth. After irrefutable evidence of Marys involvement in the plots came to light, Elizabeth sadly succumbed to the pressure from her advisors and had the Scottish princess executed in 1587. She made the first church of England a protestant denomination and avoided a war with the Roman Catholic nations.But the persecution of continental Protestants forced Elizabeth into war. The situation came to head in 1588 after Elizabeth rejected a marriage proposal from Philip II of Spain. The indignant Spanish King, incensed by English piracy and forays in New World exploration, sent his much-feared Armada to raid England, inadvertently providing Elizabeth with an opportunity to put on public display those qualities of heart that one might not expect to find in those days, in a small, frail woman. At that time, defeating Spain was a dream, howevet she traveled to Tilbury, Essex, to address her troops as they awaited the coming battle with the feared Spanish naval forces. She told them: Therefore I am come amongst you, as you see, at this time, not for my recreation and disport, but being resolved, in the midst and heat of the battle, to live and die amongst you all; to lay down for my God, and for my kingdom, and my people, my honour and my blood, even in the dust. I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any prince of Europe, should dare to invade the borders of my realm. ( Strachey, L, 2005: 95)She encouraged the army which at last defeated the strongest Armada. The English won the naval battle handily, aided by some fortuitous inclement English Channel weather, and emerged as the worlds strongest naval power, setting the stage for later English imperial designs. Her courage was respected by her people and thats why she became a great ruler.People know that Elizabeth reined the country for 45 years and never married. Some historician such as Guy, Haigh, Ridley analyzed it. They said that although Elizabeth entertained many marriage proposals and flirted incessantly (her closest brush with marriage came with Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester). Despite several petitions from parliament and numerous courtships, she never did. She wanted a marriage, however there was a dilemma that whomever she would marry: a Cathlic man or a puritant there could not avoid a battle between the two religious factions. Whats worse, a civil war may happen if she choose any one of them. To some degree, she sacrificed her happiness to keep England united. Hence her virginity is valued by people. She excelled at rising to challenges and emerging victorious Elizabeth, “Gloriana,” the last of the Tudors, died without leaving an heir at seventy years of age after a reign that had exceeded all realistic expectations for it and qualifies her to be considered in the top rank of British monarchs. She used her great courage and intelligence to give England a good start. Just as Dr David Starkey paised her: Elizabeth is extraordinary. She looks extraordinary. She behaves in an extraordinary way. And as a woman moving so effortlessly in mans world, she so doubly extraordinary.2.1.2 Negative Comments on Elizabeth IThough some historians are more reserved in their assessments. They depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler, who enjoyed more than her share of luck. The war with Spain made England have a great debt, whats more the soldiers could not get their salaries sometimes. The economy was weakened and there appeared more poor people. Because towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity to the point where many of her subjects were relieved at her death. Many historicians criticize Elizabeths era. Some mordern Eropean historicians such as Somerset, Elton begin to be suspicious of the long-time active comments on Tudor era. They mainly criticize her because she supported slave traffic for high profit although she knew that was inhuman behavior. Under her reign, England extended its exploration and slave trade.2.2 A Brief Introduction to Wu ZetianThere are more than 400 Emperors in the history of China. There was only one female Emperor in the history of China. She was known as Emperor Wu Zetian. She lived during the Tang Dynasty and was born to a wealthy and noble family and very well educated. Wu Zetian (simplifiedChinese: 武则天) (62516 December 705, personal name Wu Zhao (武曌), often referred to as Tian Hou (天后) during Tang Dynasty and Empress Consort Wu (武后) in later times, was the only woman in the history of China to assume the title of Empress Regnant. She broke all precedents when she founded her own dynasty in 690, the Zhou (周) (interrupting the Tang Dynasty), and ruled personally under the name Sacred and Divine Empress Regnant (聖神皇帝) and variations thereof from 690 to 705. In the year 690, she dethroned the puppet emperor, declared herself as Sacred and Divine Empress Regnant and founded her own Dynasty. She passed away in 705, living beyond 80 years old. 2.2.1 Positive Comments on Wu ZetianAt the early times of Tang dynasty, people had the positive attitudes of her for all of the kings were her decents, whats more confulism didnt play the dominant roles. Her rise and reign has been criticized harshly by Confucian historians but has been viewed under a different light after the 1950s. Therefore the judgements became more objective. Historicians began to pay attention to Wus contribution not her faults. Historicians thought that she was able to understand the big picture and made strategic plans. After ascending the throne, Wu Zetian adopted some liberal and advanced political systems, including selecting talent on a large scale, conducting economic development and responding positively to expostulation. The stable society and booming economy during her reign laid a foundation for “the Kaiyuan Flourishing Age” later in the Tang Dynasty.She ruled competently and Tang Dynasty was prosperous during her reign. She promoted people based on talent instead of birthright, like Di Renjie. She improved on the agricultural and commercial development of the country. She settled the border dispute and brought peace to the people living near the border. She lowered taxes on peasantry and maintained aggressive foreign policy. The economic prosperity she maintained gave a secure foundation for the cultural blossoming under Tang Ming Huang. She had a talent for manipulation and intrigue. Utterly shocking Confucian moralists. A keen feminist, designed a sexual custom aimed at elevating the female humbling the male. Disliked fellatio as male supremacy symbolism. She devised a means whereby “licking the lotus stamen” could be exalted into prime extracoital importance thus symbolizing advent of female domination. Wu insisted on that government officials, dignitaries pay homage to her Imperial Highness by performing cunnilingus upon her. Her regime was characterized by Machiavellian cleverness and brutal despotism. Her reign similarly saw a flourishing of the arts, dance and music, as well as a remarkable religious diversity. During her reign, she improved on the imperial examination so as to recognise talents. She took the trouble to preside over the examinations, and conducted oral examinations of scholars who had passed a few rounds of examinations. She had the ability to recognise talent and managed talent. The family background of the scholars did not matter, what really matter was the potential. On the same note, once she discovered incompetency among the court officials, she would take action to remove them from office. Under her rulership, the population increased at an average rate of 9.1%. People enjoyed peace and prosperity. The court was full of talented officers serving the ordinary people. Wus talents in political field was praised by people.2.2.2 Negative Comments on Wu Zetian From Tang dynasty people have different judgement on Wu Zetian and each are from different perspective. As the time past, especially Si Maguang edited the book 资治通鉴in which he condemn Wu ZeTian severely. The famous thinker Wang Fuzhi described her as: She will not be accepted by ghost or gods and resented by normal people and officials (鬼神之所不容，臣民之所共怨). Most historicians regarded that she was a power-hungry, crule ruler who used whatever means to achieve the highest position and her personal behavior was scandalous. In the intrigue-filled imperial harem, Wu Zetian was merciless and cruel. She would use clever tricks to make the queen and other concubines out of favor with the emperor. To get power she killed her own little baby to getting rid of her enemies: Empress Wang and Consort Xiao. She framed them for killing her baby girl and practising black magic. Then she became empress, and extremely powerful. She ordered the execution of the Empress Wang and Consort Xiao by beating them a hundred times and chopping off their hands and legs before soaking them in wine. Both ladies suffered greatly before death. In the end, she succeeded in the struggles and became queen. Wu Zetian began to put her political talent into full play by expressing her political views and intervening in state affairs, gaining an equal status to that of Emperor Gaozong (Li Zhi) and they were known at the time as “the Two Sages”. After the death of Emperor Gaozong, Wu Zetian appointed and annulled her sons as emperor for several times. At last, she made herself emperor and changed the title of the Dynasty to “Zhou”.On the other hand, Wu Zetian put cruel officials in important positions and put innocent officials under various accusations at every turn, subjecting them to cruel torture, which resulted in countless injustice cases. In order to consolidate her political position, she adopted inhumane measures to indiscriminately slaughter the innocent people. These practices were condemned by the people. She wanted to be the King became more obvious. After the death of Emperor Tang Gaozhong, Empress Wu continued to hold actual ruling power behind all the puppet emperors. With the eager to be the king Wu became a merciless killer. Different Comments Reflecting Different CulturesIn feudal times she was thought as a power-hungry woman who used whatever means to achieve the highest position. They were not willing to acknowledge that she ruled competently and Tang Dynasty was prosperous during her reign. They all have one thing in common that is they all ignore her contributions to China. Under her reign the country became stronger and more prosperous. There was peaceful bundaries and the countries military was strengthened. She promoted people based on talent instead of birthright. She lowered taxes on peasantry and maintained aggressive foreign policy. She would normally be described as a benevolent and wise ruler, rather than power hungry If shed been a man.However, Elizabeth are judged by historicians more objectively. From the judgements on the two women, we can find the deep reasons which result those different judgements: two different cultural backgrounds. Because culture decides peoples thinking methods and attitudes toward women. There are a great number of differences between China and England for their cultural backgrounds such as conventions and female educations, womens social status.3.1 ConventionsIn old China, women had to obey the “the three obediences and four virtues” (三从四德). Thats for a woman according toCunducian ethics. Males dominance was guaranteed and maintained by certain norms. The three cardinal guides (ruler guides subject, father guides son, and husband guides wife) and the five constant virtues (benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and sincerity) defined social behavior, and the three obediences (in ancient China a woman was required to obey her father before marriage, her husband during marriage, and her sons in widowhood) and four virtues (womens fidelity, physical charm, propriety in speech and proficiency at needle work) guided the family order.Its obivous to see that there are so many restrictions on women at that time. Wu Zetian broke all of these restrictions and became the ruler of all the countries men who were always feeling supeiror to women for thounsands years. So at the bottom of their heart they resented against Emperor Wu, however, at that time they could not express any dissatisfaction to her or they would be killed.But when after Wu died there appeared many men who condemned her severely. The essence of this behavior is Wus ruling hurt mans proud especioully royal decence. Many historicians described as crule, sly, power-huangry woman. Its difficult to say they are all right for their judgements had some angry toward this woman who broke all mans lengend and their proud which was the most important thi