Adapting Classroom-based Strategy Instruction to a Distance Learning Context.doc

Adapting Classroom-based Strategy Instruction to a Distance Learning ContextAbstractThe role of language learning strategy instruction (SI) in promoting learner autonomy is widely recognised (Wenden, 1991; Little, 1994; Cohen, 1998) and a consensus is emerging over how best to implement it. However, apart from studies by White (1995, 1999) and Hurd et al. (2001), the majority of research is located within a classroom learning situation. This paper explores dilemmas posed in the design of SI for adults learning a range of languages in a distance learning context. Recent approaches to SI are reviewed and attempts to resolve the issues described. It appears that the absence of language-specific tasks in which to contextualise the SI is less problematic than the absence of teacher mediation to scaffold Learner Self Management. -1- IntroductionAn increasingly deregulated global economy with its need for a flexible labour market has led to greater emphasis on facilitating access to life long learning (Council of the European Union, 2001, p.11). This factor combined with the forthcoming expansion of the European Union to include ten new nations is likely to mean a growth in demand for language learning opportunities amongst adults no longer in full-time education. Because adult learners may have to fit their language learning into existing work commitments, distance learning may be an attractive option. The INSTAL project (Individualising Strategies for Adult Learners in Language and ICT-Learning) was established in 2000, under the European Commissions Grundvig Programme for Adult Education. It brings together twenty three researchers and teachers from across the EU in a series of regular meetings in various EU locations (a full list of participants is provided at the end of the paper). The aim is to explore how to support adult learners at diverse levels of competence, tackling a range of different languages, and whose access to computer technology and the most recent textbooks might be limited. It sets out to complement any resources the learners have to hand by designing a handbook that enables them to exploit those resources more effectively. A CDROM is also being developed alongside the handbook. Considerations as to what is most appropriately delivered through the handbook and what through a CDROM will be the subject of another paper.Of all the self-instructed modes of learning, distance learning requires the greatest degree of autonomy. As Hurd et al. (2001, p. 344) point out: In order to successfully complete a distance learning programme, learners have to maintain their motivation while working alone and develop a series of strategies that will enable them to work individually. The strategies referred to have been the subject of considerable investigation over the last two decades. Stemming from the research into the Good Language Learner (Stern, 1975; Naiman, Frhlich, et al., 1978), they have been described as the specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed (Oxford, 1990, p. 8). However, White (1995) warns against assuming that the distance learning context per se will give rise to autonomy. The reasons underlying the learners choice of mode of study (work commitments, geographical location) do not necessarily predispose them to taking charge of their own learning. Recent studies (summarised in McDonough, 1999) indicate the value of teaching learners the strategies they need. A number of SI materials have been developed for classroom use and some textbooks now integrate SI into their courses (see Cohen, 1998). The challenge facing the INSTAL project has been to adapt existing models of SI to the context of adults in a distance learning context and with access to very different types of support. These constraints pose three central dilemmas. -2-First, the materials have to be free standing, since the aim of the project is to enable learners of any language to exploit whatever resources they have available. Whilst recognising that English may be the language that the majority of learners are studying, it is important to acknowledge the needs of other learners who may, for a range of political, social or vocational reasons, be learning languages other than English. Yet there is increasing evidence to suggest that SI is more effective if it is contextualised, so that learners: develop their learning strategy repertoire while learning the target language at the same time (Cohen, 1998, p. 80). Hurd et al. (2001) describe the dilemma of developing an autonomous approach to language learning within an Open University course in which the amount, rate and content of the programme is determined by the course writer. They were able to turn this potential problem into an advantage by presenting specific strategies at specific times to address the particular difficulties a task might raise, so that the SI did not occur in a vacuum. The constraints on the INSTAL project are diametrically opposite. The advantage is that there is no predetermined course format or content. The difficulty is that there are no concrete language tasks in which to embed the SI. Second, it cannot be assumed that the distance learners have any support from a teacher. Some may be attending evening courses but for others financial or family commitments may make it impossible. Yet, as Cohen (1998) indicates, teachers have a number of key roles to play in SI. They would normally, for example, tailor the selection of strategies to be taught according to the learners needs. The INSTAL materials, however, have to be directed towards learners at different levels of competence. The presence of a teacher is also desirable since, as Ellis and Sinclair (1989, p. 8) point out:Many adults returning to the classroom to learn a foreign language have come from a past learning experience which concentrated on studying grammar and structures and provided few opportunities to use the language as a means of communication. Consequently these learners may find it difficult to come to terms with more learner-centred and communicative approaches.Recent studies of learning strategies emphasise the importance of enabling learners to understand and then manage not only their repertoire of strategies but also their learning patterns, attitudes and feelings (Wenden, 1995; Butler, 1997; Rubin, 2001). Finding alternative ways of providing the necessary mediation has been a further consideration for the INSTAL project. -3-Finally the adult distance learners may or may not have opportunities to collaborate with other learners not only to practise the language but also to share each others strategies. Developing tasks to provide such opportunities at a distance has been problematic.This paper reviews classroom models of SI, highlighting the particular difficulties of adapting them to the distance learning context in relation to:1. the selection and presentation of strategies for learners at all levels of competence; 2. the contextualisation of SI, without the use of language specific resources; 3. the integration of strategies designed to enhance Learner Self Management (LSM); and 4. the provision of peer supported practice activities. It goes on to present the INSTAL projects attempts to resolve the dilemmas posed. The aim is not to offer solutions. Indeed many of the issues raised have been a source of lively debate. Rather it seeks to offer tentative suggestions and to indicate areas for further investigation. The paper begins by considering the role of strategies in developing learner autonomy with a view to identifying those that are particularly important in the distance learning context.Autonomy, Learning Strategies and Learner Self ManagementThe last twenty years have seen growing interest in the notion of learner autonomy. The ideas and beliefs underpinning this development as well as the historical events shaping it have been summarised by Gremmo and Riley (1995). Alongside these developments, there has been increasing awareness that it is essential to the development of autonomy that learners become aware of themselves as learners-aware, for example, of the learning techniques they instinctively favour and capable of judging how effective those techniques are (Little, 1994, p. 86). Studies of the techniques or strategies used by proficient language learners (reviewed in Skehan, 1989) suggest that they have a wider range of strategies and employ them more frequently than their less successful peers. They have also revealed the key role played by metacognitive strategies (OMalley & Chamot, 1990). In categorising strategies, a common distinction is made between direct processing of the language-cognition-and thinking about these processes-metacognition. In terms of learning strategies, cognition can include a wide range of language processes from techniques for memorising vocabulary to those used to infer meaning from texts. Metacognition, on the other hand, is concerned with guiding the learning process itself and so includes strategies for planning, monitoring and evaluating both language use and language learning; key elements in developing autonomy. -4-Of particular relevance for the INSTAL project is Whites (1995) investigation comparing the strategies used by distance learners to those of classroom language learners. This shows a wider and increased use of metacognitive strategies by distance learners, particularly self management, monitoring and evaluation. She concludes that these are activated by the need to compensate for the absence of a teacher, who normally selects materials at the appropriate level, guides the pace of work and provides learners with immediate feedback on their progress. Rubin (2001) also notes the critical role that LSM plays in facilitating use of self-access centres and of new technologies such as distance learning and the world wide web. Her synthesis of recent studies reveals an elaborate picture of the role of metacognition. Drawing on Wenden (1995) and Butler (1997), she proposes an interaction model, showing the complex dynamic processes between the task to be tackled, the procedures for LSM, and LSM knowledge and beliefs. LSM procedures cover the metacognitive strategies of planning, monitoring, evaluating, problem-solving and implementing. LSM knowledge covers the learners strategic knowledge, background knowledge and self-knowledge. The latter is particularly important for adult learners since it involves reflecting on the assumptions they bring to the language learning process. They may, for example, be resistant to a different methodology than the one they experienced in school or ascribe any problems they face to their age or lack of aptitude (Wenden, 1999). In the classroom situation, teachers are able to discuss and explain the rationale underlying new methodologies or shifts in the teacher-learner role. They are also able to help learners develop the related affective strategies; for example using positive self talk or relaxation techniques to control panic or frustration when faced with a difficult learning task. White found that distance learners made greater use of these strategies than classroom learners. Noting however that they made less use of social strategies (pooling ideas with peers or asking for clarification), she concludes that distance learners have to compensate for the lack of peer support by a greater focus on managing their own feelings. It appears then that the exact approaches the distance learners most need by virtue of the learning context are precisely those most difficult to develop in the absence of a teacher.The need both to exploit any advantages of the distance learning context and to try to overcome its limitations has been a key challenge for the INSTAL project. This has been the dilemma not only in relation to fostering the strategies that the learners most need but also in relation to the model of SI to be presented.Learning strategy instruction; principles and problemsContextualising SIA major outcome of the research into the strategies used by successful language learners was the conclusion that learners should be taught not only the language but also the learning strategies they need. As Rubin (1990, p. 282) points out: -5- Often poor learners dont have a clue as to how good learners arrive at their answers and feel they can never perform as good learners do. By revealing the process, this myth can be exposed. OMalley and Chamot (1990) present a number of debates within SI. Should it simply be embedded in the materials or made explicit? Should it be a separate course or integrated into the usual language lessons? The nature of the INSTAL project has limited the choices available. Given the handbook has to cater for a range of languages, it has to be free standing. This has two implications, the first easier to resolve than the second. The fact that the SI cannot be embedded within materials but has to be explicitly presented is not problematic, given the importance discussed earlier of learners deliberately taking control of their own learning. Of more concern is the issue of it being a separate course. Wendens Guidelines for strategy training (1991, p.107) advocate integrated SI, explaining that when training is contextualised in this way, the relevance of the strategy is emphasized. How can the INSTAL handbook make the necessary links between the SI and any language learning course that the distance learners are following, when the tasks have to be non-language specific? The need for such tasks is all the more apparent if the sequence of steps advocated for SI is considered.The sequence of SI stepsOMalley and Chamot (1990) compare the instructional frameworks used in L1 learning contexts with those in L2 contexts. As a result, they identify:A basic structure in which the teacher first identifies or shows students how to identify their current learning strategies, explains the rationale and application for using additional learning strategies, provides opportunities and materials for practice, and evaluates or assists students to evaluate their degree of success with the new learning strategies. (p. 157)They go on to describe how this sequence of steps, moving from teacher support to learner independence, is similar to that of Ellis and Sinclairs Learning to learn English (1989). These instructional materials, like those of the INSTAL project, do not attempt to teach the language; rather they simply focus on explicit SI. Unlike the project, however, there is an accompanying teachers book and the context is clearly classroom-based, with learners being invited to compare their attitudes and strategies to others in the group. Part 1 invites the learners to reflect on their aims and their learning style and provides practical advice on organisational skills. Part 2 is grouped into separate chapters for different skill areas such as grammar, writing and extending vocabulary. OMalley and Chamot (1990) note that the strategies are not presented according to their own taxonomy headings of metacognitive, cognitive, social and affective strategies. They conclude that the optimum way of grouping strategies to minimise potential learner confusion is an aspect of SI that awaits investigation. In the absence of a teacher to tackle learners misunderstandings, simplicity has to be a key consideration for the INSTAL handbook. -6-In subsequent years, Chamot and OMalleys model of SI has been elaborated both in the USA and in the UK. Table 1 compares the stages of their model with Oxfords (1990) study and that presented in Chamot, Barnhardt et al.s (1999) handbook. Whilst much of the SI research has been carried out with adult learners of English, Grenfell and Harris (1999) and Macaro (2001) have adapted the model to the teaching of French or Spanish to secondary school pupils (11-18 years). As is apparent from Table 1, the broad stages of the SI they advocate are similar to those developed in the USA.Table 1 A comparison of SI stepsOMalley and Chamot (1990) Oxford (1990) Chamot, Barnhardt et al. (1999) Grenfell and Harris (1999) 1. Students identify their current learning strategies Learners do a task without any strategy training Preparation Awareness raising. Learners do a task coldThey discuss how they did it and the teacher asks them to reflect on how their strategies may have facilitated their learning They brainstorm the strategies used. Class shares strategies that work for them 2. Teacher explains additional strategies Teacher demonstrates other helpful strategies, stressing the potential benefits Presentation Modelling. Teacher demonstrates new strategies, emphasises their value and draws up a checklist of strategies for subsequent use 3. Teacher provides opportunities for practice Learners are provided with opportunities to practise the new strategies Practice General practice Learners are given a range of tasks to deploy new strategiesLearners are shown how the strategies can be transferred to other tasks ExpansionLearners are provided with further tasks and asked to make choices about which strategies they will use Action planning Learners are guided to select strategies that will help them address their particular difficulties Further practice and fading out of reminders to use strategies 4 Teacher assists learners in evaluating their success with the new strategies Teacher helps learners to understand the success of their strategy use and assess their progress towards more self-directed learning Evaluation Evaluation Teacher guides learners to evaluate progress and strategy use and to set selves new goals. -7- The additional practice st