经济 营销 英文翻译 外文文献 英文文献 国外投资和道德标准在欠发达国家如何通过商业经营为社会责任做出贡献.doc

author：roland bardy, stephen drew，tumenta f. kennedynationality：usa，usa，germanyoriginate from：journal of business ethics springer science+business media b.v. 2011 10.1007/s10551-011-0994-7外文翻译原文1foreign investment and ethics: how to contribute to social responsibility by doing business in less-developed countries1.introductionglobalization, foreign direct investment (fdi), and trade can potentially bring social, economic, and business benefits to emerging market countries through inflow of capital, knowledge, and increased employment. however, the specific conditions and mechanisms for this to happen are complex, not well understood, and may depend upon an individual countrys situation. there is a broad stream of research which argues on the one hand that fdi effects can be unpredictable, unintended, and counterproductive (nunnenkamp 2001; yamin and sinkovics 2009), or even threatening (dixon et al. 1986; mengistu 2009). other authors show a very positive and engaged posture with development issues (meyer 2004; ramamurti 2004). there is also an evidence of recent more realistic and critical assessment, probing more deeply into the external effects of international business (ghauri and yamin 2009). much research focuses on economic development (for an overview see moran et al. 2005), and only a few authors deal with social development (pratt 1991; donaldson 2001; kolk and van tulder 2006; jamali 2010). however, there are related ethical and social issues that are often crucial for multinational enterprise (mne) strategies and long-term success. these include corruption, employment conditions, marketing practices, and effects on the natural environment (donaldson 1989; longworth 1998). the impact of such issues on host countries has been investigated by glac (2004), bennett (2002), and wei (2000).2.incentive and advantage based ethicspre-modern philosophy considered (universal) standards as given. we argue that a different approach which comes closer to relativism and even constructivism is needed in contemporary complex global business. homann (2002) states that in the age of globalization, moral foundations should be based on advantages and incentives, and that ethics is not about following rules, but about developing them, i.e. not about just following rules but setting the rules of the game. with so-called “incentive- and advantage based ethics” (luetge 2005), the question is not whether altruism or other nonadvantage seeking behaviors are historic anachronisms nor if practice has proven that only self-interested behavior leads to beneficial economic result. there is a long traditionboth in public and academic discourseof discussing the tension-filled relationship between profit and morality under competitive market circumstances (hemphill 2004). often, proof is sought by recurring to a list of moral concerns, which includes environmental pollution, global warming, child labor, human rights violations, the deterioration of social standards like job security, and the fight against corruption. in these instances, and in many more, what for a long time has been looked at as clash between private interest and public interest, is now becoming a collaborative issue. private business firms seem increasingly willing to take on the role of corporate citizens by embracing the rights and duties of political actors. they have engaged in rule-finding discourses as well as rule-setting processes in which they actively cooperate with government actors and/or civil society organizations. but what are their motives and their incentives, and what is required to encourage the pursuit of ethical behavior? one answer lies with what boatright (1999) has called the “mistake” on which business ethics often rest. 3.attracting and conducting fdi: a two-way streetthrough fdi, a company not only penetrates a host countrys market, it may also gain access to resources, economies of scale and scope in production, logistics, and marketing processes. important markets include supply chains, distribution networks, and end customers. whether a firm chooses fdi rather than serving foreign markets through exporting, licensing, alliances, or other means is determined by three factors (dunning and lundan 2008). these include: a transferable competitive advantage in the home-market, specific characteristics of the foreign market which allow the firm to exploit its competitive position in that market, and the firms ability to increase its competitive position by taking advantage of what the host country has to offer for controlling the entire value-chain. all three conditions must be present or fdi may not take place (dunning and lundan 2008). the firm-specific advantages which constitute spillover effects of fdi (proliferation of technology, secondary employment, and enhancement of skills) are often what less-developed countries need for their growth and development. the host country and the investor may focus on the location-specific advantages as factors to entice higher levels of fdi inflows.when the three conditions as stated above are missing then fdi either does not occur or occurs only at very low levels. this explains why some areas of the world, especially the poorest, fail to attract fdi. although fdi flows to africa have increased in recent years, these represent only a small portion of the total flows to developing countries. average annual fdi flows increased from us $ 2.2 bn. in 1980, to 15 bn. during the period 20002004. however, africas share of global flows fell from 2.3% in 1980 to about 1.5% during 20002004. as a percentage of total flows to developing countries, africas share fell from 10% in 1980 to 7% during 20002004 (cleeve 2009). local infrastructure, effective macroeconomic policy, and reliable data of possible host nations are decisive in choice of location for foreign firms. these are often lacking in africa.knowledge of a country or region is crucial in the choice of location, and without this, investors may underestimate entrepreneurial opportunities or overestimate risks, pushing such locations to the periphery of the decision-making process. but there are investment opportunities in almost any region of africa. according to unctad (2011a), africa offers the highest return on fdi in the world, far exceeding all other regions. while not yet as competitive as the bric countries, the demographics bode well for africa as a market as more than half its population is under the age of 24. europes population will lose 60 million people by 2050, however, africa will add 900 million. ironically, africas very poverty creates opportunities: education; healthcare; infrastructure; banking the unbanked; and middle class aspirational consumer goods etc. (luiz 2010). some areas in sub-saharan africa still have deficiencies in all these areas, and more often than not, the risk profile is heightened by political and institutional instability and unpredictability and high levels of corruption (ngowi 2001). investors need reliable information, but too often the official statistics are lacking or unreliable and official sources cannot provide robust data on markets, business partners, and available labor (kennedy 2011). unfortunately, when reliable information is absent, and when all ingredients of a risky environment are present, the vicious cycle of poverty continues. fdi does not take place and the associated possible benefits cannot be exploited. this is where the instruments of solidarity with the poor and strong transnational institutions have a vital role. the international development association (ida) is a division of the world bank that helps the worlds poorest countries. ida complements the world banks other lending arm, the international bank for reconstruction and development (ibrd), which serves middle-income countries with capital investment and advisory services. ibrd and ida share the same staff and evaluate projects with the same rigorous standards. these common standards encourage private investors to follow suit and resolve the informational and infrastructural deficits.4.cases from sub-saharan countriesin the republic of south africa, quite a few investments have been directed at the specifics of this regions consumers and producers. one of the biggest fdi deals of 2001 was saudi ogers usd180 million investment in cell c, the new cellular operator. also in 2001, malaysian resources corporation announced a usd 200million property development. global environment fund acquired forestry assets worth usd150 million billion from mondi and formed global forest products, signaling its intention to bid for state-owned forestry assets. these ventures not only contribute to improving the base for follow-up investments that broaden the opportunities for local small businesses, they are also directed toward improving communication throughout rural areas and providing new skills to hitherto unskilled labor (akinboade et al. 2006).the second case is from uganda, which in the past was shunned by investors, but has over the past 20 years attracted a significant number of investors mainly in response to the implementation of far-reaching economic and structural reforms. privatization of state enterprises and the return of confiscated enterprises and properties to the asians who had been expelled form the country during the idi amin dictatorship, have positively affected the attraction of fdi. but a major impact on social development stems from the services sector fdi which has grown rapidly in uganda. typical of this is accounting and computer services, warehousing, transportation and communication, and other services to support the manufacturing sector. in addition, the liberalization of the economy coupled with local demand for services like mobile telephony has attracted investments from big players on both the regional and international scene, such as vodafone and mtn. another example for positive fdi effects is the agro-business investments in various sub-saharan states. in recent years, agriculture is being perceived as a sector that not only offers investment opportunities for the private sector but also a drives local development of agriculture-related industries and the rural nonfarm economy (world bank 2007). in east africa, fisheries are an expanding sub-sector due to the presence of some of the largest fresh water lakes in the world. lake victoria, half of which is in uganda, is the second largest freshwater lake in the world. similarly, ghana, cte divoire and cameroon have attracted investments in cocoa processing as a result of suitable agro-climatic conditions for cocoa production. from this type of investments, the low-skilled labor force which is employed in subsistence farming purposes is being converted into skilled labor with processed foods gaining prominence in both domestic and global markets. and the primary investments spur follow-ups like the drumnet project implemented launched by pride africa that uses a mobile phone interface to link smallholder farmers to banks, farm input suppliers and agricultural buyers.the projects premise is that information on the market is one of the key elements that keeps farmers from getting the full market value for their products. this lack of information keeps the farmers in a disadvantageous financial position, making it difficult for them to obtain the financing and resources they need to grow their business. drumnetprovides marketing, financial, and informational services aimed at stimulating wealth creation and the economic integration of smallholder farmers. to conclude this list of examples, reference shall be made to private sector participation in agricultural water development, which has been developing over the last decade in e.g. kenya, niger, and cameroon. private investment here uses increased technologies for in-field rainwater management for dryland crops, the objective of which is to increase the effectiveness of rainfall to stabilize and enhance yields. the most promising of these are the various types of conservation farming, including deep tillage, reduced tillage, zero tillage, and various types of planting basins, all of which have been successfully demonstrated in many parts of the region, both in the semi-arid and dry sub-humid zones. the results have been impressive, particularly when the technology input has been combined with what is called “farmers field schools”. 5.summary and trendsthe current wave of globalization has intensified the competition for fdi among developing countries, and all actors share responsibility to make changes in attitudes, policies, and structures (dupasquier and osakwe 2005). international organizations, national governments, business, labor, civil society, and the media each have important roles to play.opportunistic and short-term ventures driven only by the profit motive are becoming less acceptable, bringing corporations pursuing such strategies into disrepute, and making them targets for a technology-enabled global community of activists and ngos. strategies that not only add to business value but also lead to long-term economic and social improvements are increasing in significance. profit seeking by, e.g., selling luxury goods or high-end eco-tourism destinations to an elite of wealthy customers and using parts of the profit to address social inequality issues, will not be sufficient. serving the needs of customers at the top of the pyramid is becoming less important than meeting the needs of those at the bottom of the pyramid and the increasing ranks of the middle classes with similar ambitions to their counterparts in developed nations. it also seems the world has started to commit itself to a number of principles and values. fair globalization means making these values an integral part of the process of global economic integration.this paper has highlighted the complexity and challenges of moving to a more socially responsible vision of capitalism across borders. there is a wide body of theoretical and empirical literature on the economic effects of fdi. however, studies addressing the links between cross-border business and ethical considerations are less abundant. this paper describes a growing body of study and evidence relating fdi, ethics, csr, and poverty alleviation. we have addressed poverty alleviation as a key question for global ethics and in particular sub-saharan africa.译文1国外投资和道德标准:在欠发达国家如何通过商业经营为社会责任做出贡献1.导言 经济全球化，外商直接投资(fdi)，和贸易通过资本和知识的流入很可能为新兴市场国家带来社会、经济和商业利益，增加就业机会。然而，具体情况和机制是复杂的，这种情况的发生不好理解，可能取决于个别国家的情况。有一个广泛的研究流派认为，fdi的影响是不可预知的，意想不到的，并且是适得其反(nunnenkamp 2001；yamin和sinkovics 2009)，甚至是威胁性的(迪克森吴昱。1986;mengistu 2009)。其他学者则对发展问题展现出了一种积极参与的姿态。最近还有一个更现实更具批判性的证据，更深入探讨了国际商务的外部效应（ghauri和yamin2009)。很多的研究主要集中于经济发展（参考于概述，陈其昕等人2005），而只有少数著作涉及发展问题(pratt 1991; donaldson 2001; kolk and van tulder 2006; jamali 2010)。然而，相关的伦理和社会问题对跨国企业(mne)的策略和长期成功来说是至关重要的。这些问题包括腐败、就业状况、营销实务、和对自然环境的影响(donaldson 1989; longworth 1998).这些问题对东道国的影响已经被glac (2004),，bennett (2002),，和 wei (2000)研究过。2.激励和利益为基础的伦理道德 近代哲学认为（通用）标准是被给予的。我们认为，接近的相对主义和对等的建构主义的不同方法是被当代复杂的全球经济所需要。夫曼（2002）指出，在全球化时代，道德基础应根据利益和奖励，并认为伦理道德不是其次的规则，但会随着发展，它们不是次要的规则，而是游戏设定的规则。所谓的“激励和利益为基础的伦理道德”（luetge2005），它的问题不在于是否利他主义或其他寻求的行为是无利益的等是过时的，也不在于实践是否证明只有自利行为才会导致有益的经济效果。 有一个很长时间的惯例，包括公共部门和学术论文，关于讨论在市场竞争情况下利润和道德的之间紧张的关系（hemphill2004）。通常，寻求依据的方式是通过一系列的道德问题，其中包括环境污染，全球变暖，童工，侵犯人权，恶化的社会标准，如工作安全，和反腐败斗争。在这些情况下，并在多数情况下，长期以来一直视为私人利益与公共利益之间的冲突，现在成为一个协作问题。私人公司似乎越来越愿意去扮演企业公民的角色，通过拥抱政治行动者的权利和义务。他们通过积极与政府或民间社会组织合作，来找寻固有的规则和潜在的规则。但什么是他们的动机和奖励，以及什么道德行为是被需要去鼓励追求的？一个答案是关于博奇特（1999）称之的“错误”往往是沉睡在商业道德的。3.吸引和进行外商直接投资：双向轨道 通过对外直接投资，公司不仅渗透东道国的市场，也可以得到渠道去接触资源，规模经济和范围经济在生产，物流，销售的过程。重要的市场包括供应链，分销网络，以及终端客户。一个企业是选择对外直接投资还是通过国外市场的出口，许可，联盟，或其他手段提供服务，取决于三个因素（邓宁和兰顿2008）。它们包括：在本土市场转让的竞争优势，使公司在市场利用其竞争优势的国外市场的具体特点，以及企业利用主办国所提供的控制整个价值链来提高其竞争地位的能力。所有这三个条件必须存在不然外国直接投资是可能不会发生（邓宁和兰顿2008）。本公司特有的构成外溢效应（扩散技术，二次就业，并提高技能），这些优势往往是欠发达国家的成长和发展所需要的。东道国与投资者可能侧重于将特定位置的优势因素作为吸引更高水平的外国直接投资流入的因素。 当上文所述的这三个条件不见时，直接投资就不会发生或者只发生在非常低的水平。这解释了为什么世界上的一些地区，特别是贫穷的地区，无法吸引外国直接投资。虽然最近几年外国直接投资流入到非洲的数目在有所增加，这些流入到发展中国家的数目只占一小部分的。平均每年外国直接投资流量的增加额从1980年的2.2美元增加到20002004年的15美元。然而，非洲占全球资金的流动量从1980年的2.3%降到20002004期间的1.5%。其中流入发展中国家的，非洲的份额从1980年的10%下降到20002004期间的7%（克里问2009）。当地的基础设施，有效的宏观经济政策，和可靠可能的东道国为外国公司选择的地点等相关数据，这些都是决定性的。可这些在非洲往往很缺乏。 对一个国家或地区的了解在地点的选择是十分重要的，没有这一点，投资者可能低估或高估创业机会的风险，从而做出推动这些地点到其周边的决策。但在大多数非洲的任何地区也是有投资机会。根据联合国贸易和发展会议（2011a），非洲是世界上提供最高回报的投资地区，投资回报远远超过其他地区。虽然没有金砖四国的竞争力，但人口是个好兆头，非洲作为一个市场其一半以上的人口是24岁以下的。欧洲的人口到2050年将损失6千万，然而，非洲将增加9亿。具有讽刺意味的是，非洲的贫穷创造了机会：教育；保健；基础设施；开设账户的银行；以及中产阶级期望的消费商品等（路易斯2010）。 在所有这些领域，非洲的撒哈拉以南的一些地区仍有不足之处，而且往往是，加强政治和机构不稳定的风险和不可预测性和高层次的腐败（ngowi2001）。投资者需要可靠的信息，但往往官方统计资料往往缺乏或不可靠，甚至官方无法提供关于市场、商业伙伴和现有的劳动力等可靠的数据来源（甘乃迪2011）。不幸的是，目前的情况正是可靠的信息不存在以及所有配套都处于一个危险的环境，贫困的恶性循环正持续着。外商直接投资不发生以及相关的可能的好处不能被利用。于是，穷人和强大的跨国机构相互团结在一起，共同促进起到非常重要的作用。国际开发协会（开发协会）是世界银行的一个分支，用来帮助世界上那些最贫穷的国家。国际开发协会补充了世界银行其他贷款机构，创立了为中等收入国家提供投资资本及咨询服务的国际复兴开发银行（世界银行）。国际复兴开发银行和国际开发协会在工作人员和评估项目以及严格的标准上实习共享。