Make Speaking Persuasive.doc

Make Speaking PersuasiveContentsAcknowledgements1Abstract.2摘 要.4Part Fundamentals of Persuasive Speaking.51.1 The Characteristics of Persuasive Speaking.51.2 The Importance of Persuasive Speaking.71.3 The Purposes of Persuasive Speaking.81.4 The Selection of a Topic.81.4.1 Selecting the Subject.91.4.2 Narrowing the Subject.9Part Charisma of a Persuasive Speaker.112.1 Authority.122.2 Credibility.122.3 Social Attractiveness.142.3.1 Likeability.142.3.2 Similarity.152.3.3 Physical Attractiveness.16Part Methods of Persuasion.183.1 Persuading through Evidence and Reasoning.183.1.1 Using Opinions Wisely.193.1.2 Types of Reasoning.203.2 Persuading through Appeals to Basic Human Needs, Wants, and Desires.243.2.1 Physiological Needs.253.2.2 Safety Needs.263.2.3 Belonging and Love Needs.263.2.4 Self-Esteem Needs.273.2.5 Self-Actualization Needs.283.3 Persuading through Adapting to Different Audiences.293.3.1 Enticing a Reluctant Audience to Listen.293.3.2 Removing Barriers to Commitment.313.3.3 Moving from Attitude to Action.33Part Generally Available Strategic Resources.364.1 Selecting Appropriate Supporting Materials.364.1.1 Examples. 364.1.2 Narration.384.1.3 Testimony.404.1.4 Statistics.414.2 Using Presentation Aids and Visual Aids.434.2.1 Types of Presentation Aids.434.2.2 Media of Presentation Aids.434.2.3 Computer Assisted Presentations.44 Part Use of Language to Persuade.455.1 Giving Words Added Impact.475.1.1 Importance of Word Choice.475.1.2 Psychological Effect of language485.1.3 Power Talk.495.2 Achieving Clarity, Simplicity, Rhythm, Vividness and Humour 535.2.1 Clarity.535.2.2 Simplicity.565.2.3 Rhythm.605.2.4 Vividness.655.2.5 Humour.75Part Delivery796.1 Voice.796.2 Eye Contact.796.3 Body Language .80Conclusion.83Bibliography.85AcknowledgementsThe thesis would not be able to exist if it had not been for the constant support and encouragement from many people. Hence, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to all of them.I owe a tremendous debt to Professor Xu Yaqin, my supervisor, whose expert guidance, invaluable counsel and great encouragement helped me to make continuous progress in my two-and-a-half-year study, and whose critical reading of the manuscript and sound suggestions guided me to the completion of this thesis.I also feel it is important to acknowledge and thank all my teachers for their inspiration and instructions during my postgraduate study.Finally, my gratitude goes to my parents, whose love and support give meaning to everything I do. AbstractRalph Waldo Emerson said “Speech is power: speech is to persuade, to convert, to compel.” Many of us are being influenced and manipulated, far more than we realise, in the patterns of our everyday life. It is true, however, few people understand the art of persuasion. Therefore, I am eager to analyse and study the techniques and skills of achieving persuasion through speaking. In that way, we can understand what works, what does not work, and how we can achieve powerful persuasive speaking and defend against manipulation and propaganda. To understand how to make speaking persuasive, we should get to know its fundamentals. Naturally, in the first part, I present the characteristics, importance and purposes of persuasive speaking, and in addition, the selection of the topic for persuasive speaking.Who gives life to a persuasive speech? The speaker for sure. Then it is necessary to probe into the principles a persuader should follow. In the second part, therefore, the three attributes for a charismatic speakerauthority, credibility and social attractivenessare studied. In order to persuade the audience, the communicator must indisputably have methods and strategies of persuasion. The third part expounds some of the methods and strategies which I think are effective, that is, to persuade audiences through logic and physiological needs and to adapt to different audiences.Amplifying our speaking is also necessary. To achieve this goal, generally available strategic resources should be taken into consideration. The fourth part of this thesis is mainly about supporting materials, presentation aids and visual aids. The fifth part gives us the idea as to how speakers persuade audiences through language. Powerful arguments and good persuasive strategies would collapse without the support of language. Persuaders cannot ignore the power of language and style of speaking. Language deserves much attention and effort of the speaker. After studying the methods and language of the persuasive speaking, the last step is delivery, which can either ruin our former endeavor or accomplish our persuasion, including, in particular, voice, eye contact and body language. 摘 要我们中的绝大多数人都会在生活中受到政治家、广告商、销售人员和各种管理者的影响和游说。 这些影响不容小觑。他人怎样影响说服我们以及我们怎样在生活和工作中进行有效的说服值得探究。埃默生曾讲道：“演讲力量无穷，其力量在于说服他人， 改变其想法， 促使其行动。”首先，在研究怎样使说服性演讲更具说服力，我们应当对说服性演讲有基本的认识。论文的第一部分阐述了其特点、重要性和目的， 以及怎样为说服性演讲选题。对于演讲来说，演讲者是至关重要的。如何成为有号召力、极富魅力的说服者？ 第二部分论述了有号召力的演讲者应具备的几点特点权威性、可信度和社会吸引力。第三部分着重阐述了进行说服性演讲的方法和技巧。这对于说服性演讲至关重要。怎样通过逻辑推理和听众的心理需求来有效说服，怎样针对不同听众使用不同方法进行说服是本章的重点。第四部分介绍了说服听众过程中所使用的必要的辅助性材料和辅助性工具。无懈可击的推理论证以及对听众情绪的煽动都需要语言的强大支持。第五部分指出了语言在说服过程中的重要性，以及怎样使用语言来达到说服听众的目的。 经过对说服性演讲技巧的周密设计和对演讲语言的仔细推敲，最后一步演说的发表也不容松懈。是否能有效说服最终取决于此。第六部分讨论了演说发表过程中演讲者的声音、与听众的目光交流和肢体语言。Part Fundamentals of Persuasive SpeakingSpeeches that modify thoughts or behaviour are persuasive. Persuasion involves providing receivers with information that leads them to make decisions and alter their thoughts and behaviour. 1. 1 The Characteristics of Persuasive SpeakingThe characteristics of persuasive speaking can be seen most clearly when viewed in contrast with informative speaking.1) 1) Informative speaking reveals and clarifies options; persuasive speaking urges us to make a choice among options. One of the basic strategies of persuasive speaking is to eliminate alternatives systematically until only one choice remains. While an informative speaker may say, “Here are different options for dealing with cheating,” the persuasive speaker would urge, “You should pursue this course of action in dealing with cheating.”2) 2) Informative speaking asks for little commitment from the audience; persuasive speaking calls for a great deal. There is less risk in attending to new information and ideas than in exposing ourselves to persuasion. What if the speaker is not being honest? What if the course of action you have been persuaded to follow turns out to be a mistake? The world of persuasion is filled with risk and uncertainty.3) 3) The ethical obligation for informative speakers is large; the ethical obligation for persuasive speakers is even larger. When you influence the lives of others or cause them to take risks, you must assume responsibility for our words. If you exploit the power of persuasion by deceiving others, then you betray not just the victims but the very system in which you live.4) 4) The informative speaker acts as teacher; the persuasive speaker acts as a leader. Because of the risk involved, an audience will evaluate a persuasive speaker carefully in terms of competency and incompetency, honesty and dishonesty, power and powerlessness, selflessness and selfishness. Ethos is crucial in persuasive situations.5) 5) Informative speaking emphasizes understanding; persuasive speaking often depends on arousing emotion. Strong feelings are natural when much is at stake. The stimulation of feelings may be necessary to overcome audience hesitation over the risks involved in making a commitment. The emotional language of persuasion is often necessary to help us see the human truth of situations and to stir us to action. 6) 6) Informative speaking usually regards listeners as individuals; persuasive speaking frequently appeals to groups. Persuasion often requires group action for its success. If you want our audience to protest over a proposed increase in tuition, you must address them as members of a groupin this case, as student-victims. Language can be used to create a powerful sense of group identity. Persuasive communication can encourage individuals to act together as a powerful force for change.1. 2 The Importance of Persuasive SpeakingDefinitely persuasive speaking is a valuable skill to develop. It is both inevitable and valuable in the conduct of human affairs. And it is a form of communication crucial to the achievement of your career goals. As you study creative thinking, sensitivity to audiences, and effective speech presentation, the skills you learn will:l l help you critically evaluate messages and appeals of all kinds.l l make you more sensitive to people and situations.l l increase our willingness and self-confidence to engage in serious dialogue with other people.The Stanford University Graduate School of Business, perhaps the principal school of its kind in the world, conducted research on successful managers and found that they had five major characteristics in common. “Oral persuasiveness” leads the list because “the successful manager is primarily an effective speakerhe is interested in persuading others to his point of view.”1 Nations Business, June 1976,6.1 And this can be proved from the criteria in choosing an appropriate employee of a big company. Employers of big companies often put “persuasive skills” at the top of the list of qualities they seek in people. The reason is simple: in the working group, everyone has their own creative thinking and original thought. It is quite crucial to draw a conclusion for the whole working group. Therefore, the ability of persuasion is absolutely important.Persuasive speaking can also help make us a more competent, more active citizen and equips us to participate better in the public forum and thereby helps to strengthen democratic life.1.3 The Purposes of Persuasive SpeakingAll kinds of persuasive speaking have one common aim: to convince people to take a form of action. Therefore, they are called speeches of action, and the best way to accomplish that is through motivation. Another purpose to be accomplished through persuading is to reinforce listeners existing attitudes, beliefs, behaviour, opinions, or values. You would simply reiterate a few powerful arguments to reassure our listeners and strengthen their position.A third purpose of persuasive speaking is to convince people to change their attitude toward a particular subject. In your speech, try to capture their goodwill immediately. You would follow with some strong arguments for your position and elaborate on them. Then you might introduce statistics and other evidence accompanied by visual aids as you discuss your argument.1.4 The Selection of a Topic Obviously, selecting a subject about which you feel very strongly will enable you to better communicate your position with confidence and credibility. Remember that in a speech to persuade, nothing is more essential than transmitting credibility, because you are not only presenting your audience with accurate information but you are striving to do the following three things as you discussed above:l l Convince them to take a form of action.l l Reinforce or strengthen their existing attitudes, beliefs, behaviour, opinions, or values.l l Change their attitudes or opinions to agree with your position.1.4.1 Selecting the SubjectHow to get started on deciding on a topic to persuade? Try to use these guidelines to help select a subject that is appropriate to the rhetorical situation: l l Select a subject about those areas in which you have already spent considerable time developing expertise and insight or simply already know something and can find out more; l l Select a subject that interests you and will interest your audience (the reasons for a topic may interest listeners are: it concerns their health or security, etc. It offers a solution to a recognized problem. It is surrounded by controversy or conflict of opinion. It provides information on a misunderstood or little understood issue.); l l Select a topic appropriate to the occasion.1.4.2 Narrowing the SubjectA general subject will be of little value until it is narrowed down to a manageable size. Narrowing a subject to a more precise speech topic involves three primary considerations which are important for an effective persuasive performance: l l Narrow your subject so you can discuss it adequately in the time allotted for the speech;l l Narrow your subject to meet the specific expectations of your audience;l l Measure your subject to the comprehension level of the audience.Part Charisma of a Persuasive SpeakerThis part focuses on the communicatora key feature of persuasion. The concept of charisma comes to mind when you think about the communicator. Charismatic speakers are likely to magnetize audiences, influencing attitudes in benevolent or malevolent ways.Charisma is also one of those “great-terms” in persuasion. Consider the examples of Martin Luther Kings “I Have a Dream”, captivating the audience with his exclamation, repeated time and again.What is charisma? Coined over a century ago by German sociologist Max Weber, charisma is “a certain quality of the individual personality by virtue of which he is set apart from ordinary men and treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or at least exceptional powers and qualities”. Charismatic individuals, after all, are not superhuman, but are seen in this light by their followers. There is the interplay between leader and followers that helps to build a strong union between them.Just as there is not one type of charismatic leader, there is not one defining characteristic of effective communicators. Communicators have different attributes and influence audiences through different processes. There are three fundamental communicator characteristics: authority, credibility, and social attractiveness. Authorities, credibility, and social attractiveness cause the attitude change of audiences through different mechanisms. 2.1 Authority Authority frequently influences others behaviour through a process of compliance. Individuals adopt a particular behaviour not because they agree with its content, but because they expect “to gain specific rewards or approval and avoid specific punishments or disapproval by conforming”2 Kelman, 1958,p. 532. In other words, people go along with authoritative figures because they hope to gain rewards or avoid punishment.2.2 Credibility Credibility is one of the “Big 3” communicator factorsalong with authority and social attractiveness. Credibility, a distant cousin of authority, is a critical communicator factor, the cornerstone of effective persuasion. It traces back to Aristotle, who coined the term “ethos” to describe qualities of the source that facilitated persuasion. Nowadays, consultants offer pointers to clients who want to improve the credibility of their commercial websites. Dr Joel Whalen, in a book on persuasive business communication, says that credibility is “the single biggest variable under the speakers control during the presentation”. Jay A. Conger, writing about the role persuasion plays in business, observes that “credibility is the cornerstone of effective persuading; without it, a persuader wont be given the time of day”.Credibility refers to the degree to which your audience sees you as a believable spokesperson. If listeners see you as competent and knowledgeable of good character, they will think that you are credible. As a result you will be more effective in changing their attitudes or in moving them to do something. Credibility is not something you have or do not have in any objective sense; rather, it is what the audience thinks of you. Research suggests that expertise, trustworthiness, and goodwill are the three core dimensions of credibility. (Expertise and trustworthiness have emerged with greatest regularity, and goodwill has been uncovered in more recent research.) Each of these factors is important in its own right, and can interact with contextual factors, such as audience size, communicator role, and historical epoch. Expertise is the knowledge or ability ascribed to the communicator. It is the belief that the communicator has special skills or know-how. You see experts are used all the time in commercials.