The Pragmatic Study of English Euphemism.doc

The Pragmatic Study of English Euphemism 1. Introduction22. A general survey of euphemism22.1Definitions of euphemism32.2Features of euphemism42.2.1 Feature of indirection or implicitness42.2.2 Feature of universality42.2.3 Feature of times42.2.4 Feature of region53. Pragmatic functions of euphemism63.1 Taboo function63.1.1 Euphemistic expressions for death73.1.2 Euphemistic expressions for sex93.1.3 Euphemistic expressions for disease93.1.4 Euphemistic expressions for physiological flaw103.2 Elegant function113.2.1 Appearance euphemism113.2.2 Commerce euphemism123.2.3 Occupation euphemism133.2.4 Unemployment euphemism143.2.5 Poverty euphemism153.2.6 Crime euphemism163.3 Covering up function163.3.1 Political and military euphemisms173.3.2 Economy euphemism183.4 Positive function193.4.1 Positive function in school education193.4.2 Positive function in economics, poverty, unemployment203.5 Polite function213.5.1 Age euphemism223.5.2 Communication euphemism223.5.3 Toilet euphemism234.Conclusion24References251. IntroductionThere is a humor: Once a Paris tourist resided in UK. A landlady told him sadly that, “My husband has just passed to the other side.” The guest looked from the fence of the garden but saw no one, feeling confused. The landlady explained: “I mean hes kicked the bucket.” The guest comforted her that: “I hope his foot will be better soon.” The landlady felt unintelligibly and said: “No, he wasnt here, he snuffed it you know.” The guest wondered and said: “But youve got electricity here.” The reasons why the guest did not answer properly are that he did not realize that the landlady used euphemism, nor did he understand the “conversational implicative” of euphemism. What the landlady wanted to say is that her husband died.The word euphemism comes from the Greek word “euphemos”, meaning auspicious/good/fortunate speech which in turn is derived from the Greek root- words eu, good/well + pheme, speech/speaking(Liu Yi, 2002). The eupheme was originally a word or phrase used in place of a religious word or phrase that should not be spoken aloud, such as taboo. By speaking only words favorable to the gods or spirits, the speaker attempted to produce good fortune by remaining in good favor with them.2. A general survey of euphemism“In English language, euphemism in use differs from person to person, from profession to profession, even from class to class (Feng Cuihua, 1995: 208).” Thats why sometimes the meaning of some euphemisms will puzzle you if you do not know the background of English culture. In order to grasp the pragmatic functions of the euphemism in English, the following will be based on its definitions and features firstly.2.1Definitions of euphemismNo doubt, euphemism is a widely and frequently used figure of speech. As a hot research issue in the field of linguistics, it needs a concise and definite criterion to judge the scope of euphemism. Some of the definitions are listed below:(1) That figure of speech which consists in the substitution of a word or expression of comparatively favorable implication or less unpleasant associations, instead of the harsher or more offensive one that would more precisely designate what is intended (Simpson, J.A., and Weiner, E.S.C., 1989). (2) The substitution of a mild, indirect, or vague expression for one thought substituted (Newmark, P., 1996). (3) Euphemizing is generally defined as substituting an inoffensive or pleasant term for a more explicit, offensive one, thereby veneering the truth by using kind words (Enright D.J., 1985). (4) Word, etc. used in place of one avoided as e.g. offensive, indecent, or alarming (Kramsch, C., 2000).Euphemism plays an important role in peoples daily communication. It is an appropriate language form created by people to achieve an ideal communicative effect in the social interactions. Enright D.J. (1985) stated that “if euphemism doesnt exist, the movement of the world will stop and it will be filled with hatred. Nearly no one can live without euphemism”. 2.2Features of euphemismIn order to comprehend the pragmatic functions of euphemism profoundly, this paper will elaborate on four main features of euphemism below. They are features of indirection or implicitness, universality, times, and region.2.2.1 Feature of indirection or implicitness The most important character of euphemism is indirection or implicitness. Euphemism always gives people hints in a roundabout way. We can infer the deeper meaning and intention from the context. For example, when someone is ill, we always say he is under the weather. If someone is mad, we say he is soft in mind.2.2.2 Feature of universality Universality is something that is well-known and accepted by all of the people. Though euphemism is indirect and it doesnt come straight to the point, people can easily infer its deeper implication. Some taboos connected with sex, death, or body are replaced by euphemism. For example, when we refer to death, we seldom say “die”. We use the expression “pass away”.2.2.3 Feature of times The changes of language depend on the need and changes of the society. Moreover, euphemism undergoes a process of metabolism. It bears a marked brand of times (Li Guonan, 2001:245). For example, “she is pregnant” has many different euphemistic expressions in different eras.(1) She has canceled all her social engagements. (1856)(2) She is in an interesting condition. (1880)(3) She is in a delicate condition. (1895)(4) She is knitting little bootes. (1910)(5) She is in a family way. (1920)(6) She is expecting. (1935)(7) She is pregnant. (1956)Nevertheless, after 1960s, euphemisms of pregnant develop slowly because in modern times, people are not so implicit. They always mention things directly. Now, the phenomenon of pregnant is a cheerful thing. People will not be shy when mentioning it. “The word gay, at first, it means happy and homosexuality. However, as euphemism develops, the word gay only reminds us the meaning of homosexuality. Thus, people do not use the expression We are young and gay (Xiang Rengdong, 2005).”2.2.4 Feature of region In English euphemism, there are some regional differences. An Australian woman married to an American man. They spent their honeymoon in America. One day, the couple intended to go to a party together, but the bridegroom couldnt find a suitable full suit. The bride took out a birthday suit that she gave him as a present few days ago, saying: “Why not wear your birthday suit?” However, the whole family all astonished because in American English, “in ones birthday suit (Li Guonan, 2001: 251)” is a euphemistic expression of “naked”. Therefore, this embarrassing situation resulted from the regional differences in euphemism. Since having a general knowledge of features of euphemism, the following will research into pragmatic functions of English euphemism by special examples.3. Pragmatic functions of euphemismPragmatic functions of English euphemism are functions of the way in which language is used to express what somebody means in particular situations, especially when the actual words used may appear to mean something unpleasure. In the following, the paper will have a brief statement of euphemisms pragmatic functions, mainly based on its five aspects. They are taboo function, elegant function, covering up function, positive function, and polite function. 3.1 Taboo function Taboo is the main psychological basis of the emergence of euphemism. Euphemism is the avoidance of unpleasant, inelegant things. “A famous sociolinguist Mr. Chen Yuan once said: Generally speaking, the coming into being of euphemism all begins from taboo (Williams, 1963).” From the origin of euphemism, we can see that taboo is the first function of euphemism. When we say something about death, sex, or disease, we cannot say them out directly but only to use certain tactful words instead. This kind of words has been used widely up to now. Today, people also create more taboo euphemisms. 3.1.1 Euphemistic expressions for death One of the terms that seem to be almost universally avoided is death. For whatever reason, the usage of a number of inoffensive substitutes is required for the word “die”, or whatever the basic word for this notion may be in a particular language. There are more than 100 expressions about death in English. Take some for examples: breathe ones last breath; to return to the dust; to be gathered to ones fathers; hand in ones accounts.In addition, phrases of the following are common to hear: go to glory, go west, join the majority, pay the debt of nature, to expire, etc. Those euphemistic phrases for death mentioned above are for ones relatives and friends. However, for different kinds of death, there exists corresponding euphemisms.Examples of “Death” Related to Religiongo to Heaven; be with God; be asleep in the arms of God/in Jesus /lie in Abrahams bosom; safe in the arms of Jesus; go the way of all flesh; launch into eternity; have ones name inscribed in the Book of Life.Table 1: Euphemisms of Death Related to ReligionExamplesof “Death” in Warsfall; lay down ones life; give ones life; lay down with ones shovel and hoe; lay down ones life for; kiss the dust; bite the dust/the ground; be present at the last roll call; be written off; fire ones last shot; answer the last muster; fall in battle.Table 2: Euphemisms of Death in WarsFurthermore, “feed the fishes” instead of “death for drowned”; “devote oneself to” instead of “death for country or career”; “Death by hanging” is substituted by “go up” or “to dance on a rope”(Liu Yi, 2002).Death is not an auspicious thing. Thus, whatever, man or thing, if has something to do with death, it is referred in a euphemistic state. In the past, people often used graveyard to express the place where the dead sleep peacefully. However, the associations that give us are horrified and gloomy. Now, people use funeral home and memorial park to replace them. Moreover, use memorial service to replace funeral; ambulance replace hearse; casket replace coffin, etc. Euphemism may really comfort people.3.1.2 Euphemistic expressions for sex Sex, whether in ancient or modern time, is under taboo. In fact, words related to sex are usually replaced by euphemism, not to mention sexual organs, sexual behaviors, and sex knowledge. Since the word of pregnant makes people too shy to speak in the past. Then, there are many roundabout expressions for it. Such as, 1)She is to become a mother.2)She has been unwise.3)She is in a honey way.4)She is in trouble.5)She is knocking up, etc. For sexual organs, use “private parts” to replace “sexual organs”.For sexual behaviors, we use “have carnal knowledge, sleep with” to replace “intercourse”; use “birth control” or “family planning” to replace “contraception”.For sex knowledge, “knowledge about sex” has been said to be “the facts of life”; use “adult film” to substitute “pornographic movie”; “free love” replace “trial marriage”; and so on.3.1.3 Euphemistic expressions for disease In different times, there are different cultures and different taboo topics. However, the fear for disease is constant. People yearn for health; abstain from being ill and discussing illness. In order to mitigate the patients inner burden, enhance their minds to defeat disease, we should avoid mentioning some terrible names of disease. In this situation, we had better to apply euphemism.Disease is often substituted by the word “trouble”, such as lung trouble, liver trouble, heart trouble, stomach trouble, etc. “In modern English, for the sake of tactful expression, it also uses abbreviation to replace the whole name of disease. Like: T.B (=tuberculosis); V.D.C (=venereal disease); flu (=influenza) and so on (Yu Jianghai, 2000: 204).” Besides, the word sick is replaced by the phrase under the weather. There are the same in the following:Mental health center - madhouse or mental hospital;social disease - venereal disease;the old mens friend - pneumonia;big C or long illness - cancer;irregularity - constipation;Hansens disease - leprosy. 3.1.4 Euphemistic expressions for physiological flaw Generally, the behavior of speaking ones flaw bluntly should be avoided as a taboo. In fact, people wouldnt like to hurt the crippled. The words “lame” and “cripple” are unpleasant to hear (Xu Xiaohong, 2003: 57). For this reason, it is best to use euphemism. There are some examples below:Crippled = physically handicapped or physically inconvenienced;deformed students = special students;blind students = visually retarded students;a Mongol baby = a Downs baby;retarded = mental deficiency;deaf = hard of hearing, auditory-impaired. 3.2 Elegant functionElegant function is a function to use graceful and attractive words or phrases in place of the actual words, which may cause displeasure.In our life, it is beneficial to uphold others self-esteem. Thus, people are abstaining from speaking discriminatory words; especially those words are relevant to occupation, sex mental and physical health. Then, communication will go on smoothly. Consequently, the elegant function for euphemism emerged. Such a function reflects in six aspects. 3.2.1 Appearance euphemismDifferent people have different appearances. They are consisting of beauty and ugliness, fatty and thinness, even deformity. Except for beauty, when we talk about those imperfect persons, exceedingly to female, we often apply euphemism. Thereby, those persons can clear up their inferiority and cowardice.Speaking of ones figure, westerners think that to be fat is in an abnormal state. As a result, fatty is under taboo. Some ordinary examples are: the word “plump” replaces the word “fat” to decorate fat female, while “stout” and “mighty” are mainly for male. “Chubby” has been used to describe child, while “heavyset” and “full-figure” are both to express wealth. What a fat person wears is called “king size”. Surely, both too fat and too thin are not good. Once we see a skin lady, we should not speak her of skinny, instead, we use other adjectives, such as slender, slim, willowy, svelte and so forth. “A lean man” adorns “a skinny man”.Speaking of ones look, everyone castes for beauty. Therefore, to praise a girl that she looks very attractive is a good deed. However, to say someone ugly is on the other side. For English-speakers, when they refer to the appearance, they do not use the word “ugly” or “awful”, which has strong derogatory sense. Instead, they use the word “plain-looking”, “not pretty”, “homely”, or “ordinary” (Xiang Rengdong, 2005). Appearance euphemism also includes deformity. As the old saying: “Do not talk about tall in front of the short”. To the same, the deformities are sensitive to hear others comments on their building styles. In that case, to apply euphemism is necessary. For examples, crippled is replaced by “physically inconvenienced”; acne is replaced by “problem skin”; and pimple is described as “blossom”, “beauty spot”, and so forth.3.2.2 Commerce euphemismOn commercial occasion, it is too rude to speak some words or phrases bluntly. Then, commercialists need to change their expressions into an indirect, pleasant, accessible way. Some commercial service industries try their best to satisfy their customers vanity. By this way, they attract more customers and get a great benefit. Take airline companies as an example: in order to make passengers good impression, these companies embellish names of cabin rank positively. Therefore, “tourist class or business class” replaces the third class (Liu Ye, 1993: 82). For some customers, even though they can not afford the first or second class, they will be pleasant when hearing euphemistic phrases. Second-hand furniture, which is embellished to be antiques, is another example. Euphemisms for this factor also have: Second-hand car = pre-owned car; costume jewelry = fashion jewelry; vomit bag = for motion discomfort, etc.3.2.3 Occupation euphemismEuphemism is a mirror; we can learn the values and moral concepts of the society. In the past few years, the western countries held a series of equal opportunity movements to opposite discrimination. In order to embody fairness, equality, many euphemisms emerge as times demand. Originally, occupation has no differences in its social status. Since some jobs are treated at a low state, a lot of good names for occupation have risen to satisfy and cater humans demands.There are various patterns about occupation. One of the occupation euphemisms is making offensive and jarring jobs good names. Once, a host introduced his servant to his guests. He said: “This is my domestic help”. This kind of address uses euphemism. Although his expression is not clear, it avoids embarrassment and defends the servants self-esteem as well. For another instance, many jobs are too degrading to call. Instead, they have other expressions. Such as, beautify “lady of the evening, street girl” as “prostitute”; the street girls say what they do as business, or even do social service; “janitor” has been beautified as “security officer”; “undertaker” equals to “grief therapist”; “Chief waiter” equals to “captain”; and so on (Liu Ye, 1993: 84). Another kind of occupation euphemism is to heighten some low level. For a cook, as he has been called as a chef, his status heightened as well. When we call waiters “dining-room attendants”, we raise their social status to be supervisors. It is the same to use shoe rebuilder to substitute cobbler. Moreover, a butcher can also be addressed as a meat technologist.Apart from t