跨文化交际学考试名词解释.doc

跨文化交际学题型名词解释整理：Intercultural communication :intercultural communication is a face-to-face communication between people from different cultural back-grounds .Intracultural communication :intracultural communication can be defined as the extent to which there is shared interpersonal communication between members of the same culture whether this is in the majority .or within minority cultures .Perception :in its simplest sense ,perception is ,as Marshall singer tells us “the process by which an individual selects ,evaluates ,and organizes stimuli from the external world .”in other words ,perception is an internal process whereby we convert the physical energies of the world into meaningful internal experiences .Individualism :broadly speaking ,individualism refers to the doctrine theater the interests of the individual are of ought to be paramount ,and that all values ,rights and duties originate in individual s ,it emphasizes individual initiative ,independence ,individual expression ,and even privacy .Collectivism: it is characterized by a rigid social framework that distinguish between in-groups and out-groups .people expect their in-group to look after them ,and in exchange for that they fell they owe absolute loyalty to the group .collectivism means greater emphasis on (1)the views ,needs ,and goals of the in-groups rather than oneself ; (2)social norms and duty defined by the in-group rather than behavior to get pleasure ; (3)beliefs shared with the in-group; rather than beliefs that distinguish self from ingroup ; and (4)great readiness to cooperate with ingroup membership .Power distance :its the extent to which a society accepts that power in relationships ,institutions, and organizations is distributed unequally .Context :its the information that surrounds an event ,it is in extricably bound up with the meaning of the event .High-context communication :it is a kind of communication in which most of the information is already in the person ; while very little is in the coded ,explicitly transmitted part of the message ,e.g.,Chinese ,Japanese Low-context communication :its just the opposite of high-context communication . its the mass of information is rested in the explicit code ,e.g. American German High-context culture :its a kind of culture in which people are very homogeneous with regard to experiences ,information networks ,and the like ,e.g. Chinese ,Japanese Low-context culture :its a kind of culture in which the population is less homogeneous and therefore tends to compartmentalize interpersonal contacts ,e.g. American ,German Activity orientation :it is the way a culture views activity ,which is classified by kluckhohns and strodtbeck as being ,being-in-becoming ,and doing. Nonverbal communication: nonverbal communication involves all those nonverbal stimuli in a communication setting that are generated by both the source and his or her use of the environment and that have potential message value for the source or receiver. Paralanguage :certain vocal cues provided us with information with which to make judgments about characters personalities, emotional States ,and rhetorical activity .Paralanguage involves the linguistic elements of speech ,that is ,how something is said and not the actual meaning of the spoken words .most classifications divide paralanguage into three kinds of vocalizations ;vocal characterizers ;vocal qualifiers ; and vocal segregates M-time (monochromic time schedule ):M-time cultures tend to think of time as something fixed in nature ,something around us and from which we can not escape ; and ever-present part of the environment ,just like the air we breathe P-time (polychromic time schedule ):P-time cultures deal with time holistically and place great stock in the activity occurring at the moment .Polychronic time cultures emphasize people more than schedules .For P-time cultures ,time is less tangible and hence feeing of wasted time are not as prevalent as M-time cultures .Proverbs :(1) even the dog swaggers when its master wins favor (一人得道，鸡犬升天)it represents that the collective nature of Chinese values is largely the product of thousands of years of living and working together on the land .collectivism is characterized with a rigid social framework that distinguishes between in-groups and out-groups .people expect their in-group (relatives ,clans, organizations )member to look after them .individual identity is based on the social system .the individual is emotionally dependent on organizations and institutions ,that is their in-group framework ,if one of the in-group member ,especially the head of the in-group ,gets a great success ,all the others can get benefit from him .(2) when everybody adds fuel the flames rise high ,the more people the more strength (众人拾柴火焰高) it shows the collectivism orientation of Chinese people in their work .they are great readiness to cooperate with ingroup members .they tend to have a homogeneous work fore with little differentiation between managers and workers .the high value placed on the collective fosters mutual dependence in a group-oriented environment :they interact and conduct work activities as group efforts ,depending heavily upon one another .in collectivism-oriented culture .everyone has duty to contribute his most to the collective .(3) better to be a fool with the crowd than wise by oneself . it shows that mexican Americans have most of the characteristics of collectivism .they put more emphasis on beliefs shared with the ingroup rather than beliefs that distinguish self from ingroup and great readiness to cooperate with ingrooup membership (4) a man in king in his home it shows that they tend toward a masculine world view .sex roles in a masculine society are clearly differentiated ,with men taught to be assertive and women nurturing .Terms/questions:1. Economic globalization: the integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration, and the spread of technology. 2. Barber system Farming communities traded their surplus produce in exchange for products and services without the medium of money. Human society has always traded goods across great distances. 3. Global village：real time events 、the time and space compression All the different parts of the world form one community linked together by electronic communications, especially the Internet. 4. Melting-pot大熔炉: a socio-cultural assimilation of people of different backgrounds and nationalities.5. Diversity: refers to the mix of people from various backgrounds in the labor force with a full mix of cultures and sub-cultures to which members belong. 6. Intercultural communication: refer to communication between people whose cultural backgrounds are distinct enough to alter their communication event. Perception 7. Culture: can been seen as shared knowledge, what people need to know in order to act appropriately in a given culture.Culture: a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, and norms, which affect the behavior of a relatively large group of people8. Enculturation(文化习得): all the activities of learning ones culture are called enculturation9. Acculturation(文化适应): the process which adopts the changes brought about by another culture and develops an increased similarity between the two cultures.10. Ethnocentric(文化中心主义): the belief that your own cultural background is superior.11. Communication: mean to share with or to make common, as in giving to another a part or share of your thoughts, hopes, and knowledge.12. Components of Communication：Source交际邀请The source is the person with an idea he or she desires to communicate.Encoding编码Unfortunately (or perhaps fortunately), humans are not able to share thoughts directly. Your communication is in the form of a symbol representing the idea you desire to communicate. Encoding is the process of putting an idea into a symbol.Message编码信息The term message identifies the encoded thought. Encoding is the process, the verb; the message is the resulting object.Channel交际渠道The term channel is used technically to refer to the means by which the encoded message is transmitted. The channel or medium, then, may be print, electronic, or the light and sound waves of the face-to-face communication.Noise干扰The term noise technically refers to anything that distorts the message the source encodes.Receiver交际接受The receiver is the person who attends to the message.Decoding解码Decoding is the opposite process of encoding and just as much an active process. The receiver is actively involved in the communication process by assigning meaning to the symbols received.Receiver response接受反应The receiver is the person who attends to the message. Receiver response refers to anything the receiver does after having attended to and decoded the message.Feedback反馈Feedback refers to that portion of the receiver response of which the source has knowledge and to which the source attends and assigns meaning.Context场景The final component of communication is context. Generally, context can be defined as the environment in which the communication takes place and which helps define the communication.13. Pragmatics语用学: the study of the effect that language has on human perceptions and behavior.14. Semantics语义学：a system that associates words to meaning. It is the study of the meaning of words.15. Denotation：the literal meaning or definition of a word - the explicit, particular, defined meaning. 16. Connotation：the suggestive meaning of a word - all the values, judgment, and beliefs implied by a word the historical and associative accretion of the unspoken significance behind the literal meaning.17. Taboo禁忌语：refers to some objects, words or actions that are avoided by a particular group of people, or in certain culture for religious or social reasons. 18. Euphemism委婉语：means the act of substituting a mild, indirect, or vague term for one considered harsh, blunt, or offensive.19. Chronemics（时间学）：The study of how people perceive and use time. 20. Proxemics（空间学）： refers to the perception and use of space.21. kinesics（肢体语言）：The study of body language . 22. Paralanguage(副语言)：Involving sounds but not word and lying between verbal and nonverbal communication . 23. Monochronic time一元时间观念: means paying attention to and doing only one thing at a time.24. Polychronic time多元时间观念: means being involved with many things at once25. Planetary culture行星文化: is explored, which integrates Eastern mysticism with Western science and rationalism.26.Intercultural personhood(跨文化人格)：Represents someone whose cognitive, affective, and behavioral characteristics are not limited but open to growth beyond the psychological parameters of his or her own culture.1. What are the four trends that lead to the development of the global village？ P89Four trends that lead to the development of the global village: Convenient transportation systems/ Innovative communication systems/ Economic globalization/Widespread migrations2. What are the three aspects where cultural differences exist?Verbal difference: language, thought patternsNon-verbal communication: body-language, time concept, spacious language, paralanguage, environmentPerception: values, worldviews, beliefs, attitudes3. What are three ingredients of culture? 文化的三个成分（three Ingredients）P56An shared artifact（the material and spiritual products people produce）shared Behavior（what they do）shared Concepts（beliefs, values, world viewswhat they think）4. How to understand cultural Iceberg?P67Like an iceberg what we can see about culture is just the tip of the iceberg; the majority of it is intangible, beyond sight. and the part of culture that is visible is only a small part of a much bigger whole. It is said nine-tenth of culture is below the surface. (Just as an iceberg which has a visible section above the waterline and a larger invisible section below the waterline, culture has some aspects that are observable and others that can only be suspected and imagined. Also like an iceberg, the part of culture that is visible is only a small part of a much bigger whole. It is said nine-tenth of culture is below the surface. (P7)5. What are the tour characteristics of culture? Dynamic/ shared/ learned/ ethnocentricCulture is shared. All communications take place by means of symbols.Culture is learned. Culture is learned, not inherited. It derives from ones social environment, not from ones genes. Enculturation(文化习得): All the activities of learning ones culture are called enculturation .Culture is dynamic. (P6)Culture is subject to change. Its dynamic rather than static, constantly changing and evolving under the impact of events and through contact with other cultures. Acculturation(文化适应): the process which adopts the changes brought about by another culture and develops an increased similarity between the two cultures.Culture is ethnographic(文化中心主义). Ethnographic is the belief that your own cultural background is superior. Ethnocentrism: the belief that your own culture background is superior.6. What are the six characteristics of communication? Dynamic/ irreversible/ symbolic/ systematic/ transactional/ contextualCommunication is dynamic. Communication is ongoing, ever-changing activity. A word or action does not stay frozen when you communicate; it is immediately replaced with yet another word or action.Communication is irreversible. Once we have said something and someone else has received and decoded the message, the original sender cannot take it back.Communication is symbolic. Symbols are central to the communication process because they represent the shared meanings that are communicated. Symbols are vehicle by which the thoughts and ideas of one person can be communicated to another person.Communication is systematic Communication does not occur in isolation or in a vacuum, but rather is part of a large system. It takes place in a physical and a social context; both establish the rules that govern the interaction.Communication is transactional. (P8) A transactional view holds that communicators are simultaneously sending and receiving messages at every instant that they are involved in conversation.Communication is contextual. (P8) All communication takes place within a setting or situation called a context. By context, we mean the place where people meet, the social purpose for being together, and the nature of the relationship. Thus the context includes the physical, social, and interpersonal settings.7. How is Chinese addressing different from American addressing?(三方面)P2224In Chinese the surname comes first and is followed by the given name/ but in English this order is reversed. Addressing by names: In China seniority is paid respect to. Juniors are supposed to address seniors in a proper way. The use of given names is limited to husband and wife, very close friends, juniors by elders or superiors/ Nowadays, more and more English-speaking people address others by using the first name, even when people meet for the first time. (intimacy and equality) Addressing by relationship: Chinese often extend kinship terms to people not related by blood or marriage. These terms are used after the surname to show politeness and respect/ The English equivalents of the above kinship terms are not so used. Even with relatives, Americans tend to use just the first name and leave out the term of relationship. Addressing by title, office, profession: Another common Chinese form of address is the use of a persons title, office, profession to indicate the persons influential status. In English, only a few occupations or titles could be used. (P24) Americans tend to regard titles as trivial unless they have a clear idea of what kind of work a person does and what his responsibilities are.8. How is the Chinese writing style different the American writing style?The Chinese employ a circular approach in writing. In this kind of indirect writing, the development of the paragraph may be said to be turning and turning in a widening gyre. The circles or gyres turn around the subject and show it from a variety of tangential views, but the subject is never looked at directly. A paragraph is set off by an indentation of its first sentences or by some other conventional devise, such as extra space between paragraphs.In contrast, the Americans are direct and linear in writing. An English expository paragraph usually begins with a topic statement, and then, by a series of subdivisions of that topic statement, each supported by example and illustrations, proceeds, to develop that central idea and relate that idea to all other ideas in the whole essay, and to employ that idea in proper relationship with the other ideas, to prove something, or perhaps to argue something.9. What are the different feature of m-time and p-time? P97M: Do one thing at a time Take time commitments seriously Are committed to the job Adhere religiously to plans Emphasize promptness Are accustomed to short-term relationships P: Do many things at once Consider time commitments an objective to be achieved, if possible Are committed to people and human relationships Change plans often and easily Base promptness on the relationship Have strong tendency to build lifetime relationships M-time is noted for its emphasis on schedules, segmentation, punctuality and promptness. It features one event at a time and time is perceived as a linear structure. P-time is less rigid and clock-bound. It features several activities at the same time and time is perceived as more flexible and more human-centered.10. What different worldview can be drive from Buddhism a