Should College Students Hire Cleaners.doc

2010 Should College Students Hire Cleaners?2011Should Private Car Owners Be Taxed for Pollution?2012The Dragon Boat Festival第一段，谈谈你对端午节的认识第二段，端午节都做些什么Stop Being Isolated From Each OtherAlthough the development of information technology has greatly decreased the time people need to contact others，many city dwellers who tend to be work-oriented have a feeling that they are becoming more and more isolated from each other. In my point of view，the phenomenon of self-centered lifestyle is a consequence of fierce competition from a quick rhythmical society，but it is necessary to fully aware that cutting off ourselves from others does considerably harm us.Firstly，the feeling of isolation is detrimental to our health. Researches have found the risk of people under great pressure and loneliness getting affected by disease is much higher than those who are in a good mood and willing to make friends. Apart from the damage done to ones health，lacking enough communication will diminish our capacity for social interaction. Some people may justify themselves by proving that they can get in touch with their old friends through the Internet which is more convenient. However， they do not realize that staying in contact with their friends or relatives by electronic means is absolutely not a substitute for face-to-face talk and outdoor activities. Furthermore，separating ourselves from others will gradually turn us into an inconsiderate and irresponsible person，which will pose a problem to code of ethics. In recent years，there are more reports about senior citizens being neglected by their busy children who concentrate on work too much.So dont keep ourselves in isolation. The distance between each person can be shortened and a more harmonious society might be built under the condition that each individual keeps close contact with his surroundings.这篇学生的作文论点在开头部分已清楚的提出，然后再中间段落提出三个论据，分别用连接词firstlyapart fromfurthermore连接这三个论据，在论据扩展中，该学生使用了举例（in recent years, there are more reports about senior citizens being neglected by their busy children）,对比(some people may justify themselves by proving that they can get in touch with their old friends through the Internet which ishowever)的论证方式，最后一部分再次重申论点（so dont keep ourselves in isolation）。并且，这篇论文在词汇上充分使用了同义词或同义词组的方法，把stop being isolated的论点用许多不同的方式表达出来（如上面所示的斜体部分）。下面我们将在下一节中，我们将在讲解英语专业四、八级写作文体中，再具体解释有关说理文体的写作特点。7.2.2 英语专业四、八级写作文体分析根据写作水平的最新要求，即2000年版高校英语专业教学大纲对英语专业学生的写作水平要求，四级水平是：能根据作文题目、提纲或图表、数据等，在30分钟内写出长度为150200个单词左右的短文，内容切题，结构严谨，条理清楚，语法正确，语言通顺，表达得体；能根据提示在10分钟内写出长度为60个单词左右的应用文。八级的要求是：能写出各类体裁的文章，做到内容充实，语言通顺，用词恰当，表达得体。写作速度为30分钟300400个单词。能撰写长度为30005000个单词的毕业论文，要求思想清晰、内容充实、语言通顺。以上是大纲对四、八级写作水平的要求，但测试写作水平的要求又有点区别：首先从历年的考试要求来看，四、八级只考察说明文和议论文两种文体，暂时还没有涉及到其他文体（当然四级的应用文体便条写作仍然历年都有考察）；其次是写作时间在四级是35分钟内容写出200个单词左右的文章，在八级考试中是45分钟内写出300400个单词，这个要求比四级翻了一倍。所以这两种级别的考试虽然文章体裁相似，但要求水平各不相同，因此，我们把这两种级别的写作在本节分开讨论。（1）英语专业四级专业四级写作考试分为两部分作文和便条。首先是作文写作。作文占分值的15%， 按要求学生必须在35分钟内容写出200个单词左右的文章。具体的评分标准分为五档（如下图所示），Band 5: the writing effectively addresses the writing task.It demonstrates a well-developed logical organizational structure with clearly stated main ideas and sufficient supporting details. It has almost no errors of vocabulary, spelling, punctuation or syntax, and it displays an adequate ability to use the language with appropriacy. No difficulty is experienced by the reader.Band 4: the writing effectively addresses the writing task.It demonstrates a generally well-developed logical organizational structure with main ideas and supporting details. It has relatively few significant errors of vocabulary, spelling, punctuation or syntax, and it displays an ability to use the language with appropriacy. Very little difficulty is experienced by the reader.Band 3: the writing adequately addresses most of the writing task.On the whole, it demonstrates an adequately developed logical organizational structure though there may occasionally be a lack of relevance, clarity, consistency or support. It has some errors of vocabulary, spelling, punctuation or syntax, which may, from time to time, obscure meaning, and for most part it displays some ability to use the language with appropriacy. Occasional difficulty is experienced by the reader.Band 2: the writing only addresses some of the writing task.It demonstrates an inadequate organizational structure, and there may quite often be a lack of relevance, clarity, consistency or support. It has frequent errors of vocabulary, spelling, punctuation or syntax, and it displays a limited ability to use the language with appropriacy. Some difficulty is experienced by the reader.Band 1: the writing almost completely fails to address the writing task.It has neither an organizational structure nor coherence. Almost all sentences contain errors of vocabulary, spelling, punctuation or syntax, and it displays no ability to use the language with appropriacy. Even after considerable effort on the part of the reader, the text is largely incomprehensible.以上的要求分为五个档次： 五档为优秀档，即达到母语为英语写作者的水平，一般这个档次的考生几乎没有，四档为良好，三档为一般（即及格水平），二档为较差，一档为很差（这个档次的考生一般不多见）。从以上的具体评分标准看，主要考察学生四个方面的写作质量内容，组织、语法和得体，因此我们在以下的写作技巧讨论中，会从这四个方面分别对词汇的使用、句式的表达、段落的写作和篇章的结构进行讨论。从历年的写作题目上看，学生的作文只有两种体裁议论文和说明文，这两种文体均要求学生能对一种问题提出看法并发表议论，其实就是我们常说的说理性的文章写作， 因此在用词方面应该使用书面语体，在句式表达上应该多采用长句和复杂句的写法，在段落安排上应该注意主题句和扩展句式的写法，篇章结构方面应首先注意各个段落的衔接以及句子之间的衔接，还有开头段落、中间部分和结尾部分的写作方法。下面就分别对词汇的选择、句式的表达、段落的写作和篇章的组织进行一一解释说明。首先在词汇的选择上要注意：书面语体的表达；具体词汇的运用；以及褒贬词汇意义的选择。 正式用语指正式场合下使用的语言，即书面语体词汇。而非正式用语指在日常生活中人们相互交流时使用的语言。在英语专业四级写作中，由于文章体裁的要求，学生在用词上应该尽量表达的正式、书面化一点。在词汇的书面语体表达上，我们可以比较一下词汇的区别：InformalNormal Formal BrokenPoorImpoverishedGuyManGentlemanLoadedRichAffluentWheelCarAutomobileKids childrenOffspring上面的图表很清晰地反映了词汇在语体上选择的差别，如孩子这个单词，children 是在一般场合下常用的词，kids就显得不太正式，而offspring则显得非常正式，一般用语文学做平中。因此我们要注意在正式场合下用正式词汇。其实要判断词语的正式程度不是很容易，但一个比较容易掌握的方法是正式词汇一般是大词，有很多音节，多来自法语、拉丁语、希腊语。而非正式词汇多是小词，音节较少，来自央格鲁撒克逊词汇。具体的实例请参见本书第三章词汇的文体特征。词汇选择的第二个需注意的技巧是具体词的使用。一般用语或抽象用语为泛指意义的词，特点是太概括、太笼统、太抽象、语义模糊、不很确切。学生在用词上普遍喜欢使用一般词汇，如：good, bad, beautiful, nice, great, terrible等，而这些词不具有更精确的意义，多用只会是作文显得语言贫乏，缺乏表现力，所以这类词汇在写作中应尽量避免使用。写作考试中要在短时间内达到表达准确必须使用具体词汇，如smiles是个一般词汇，我们有许多表示笑的具体词汇：beam微笑， chuckle 吃吃地笑，giggle 咯咯地笑，grin 露齿而笑， jeer 嘲笑， roar 哄堂大笑， sneer 冷笑等；再如anger这个词是个一般词语，表示气氛，但fury 则表示暴怒、大怒，程度比anger要强，indignation 义愤，尤指处于道义上的激愤，resentment表示怨恨、不满，尤指由于受辱或自尊心受到伤害后而产生的愤慨。 从以上的具体词汇和一般词汇的比较上，我们应该在写作是扩大自己的词汇，培养对特定、具体、有明确意义的词的敏感性。在下列两组句子中，A组词汇贫乏，只有一个动词，B组则细致入微，给人印象深刻而生动：Aa. I hate all explores.b. I hate hypocrites.c. I hate traitors.d. I hate a coward.e. I hate an insincere person.f. I hate parasite.g. I hate flattery.B.a. I hate all explores.b. I detest hypocrites. （蔑视）c. I loathe traitors. （道义上的厌恶）d. I despise a coward. （对低下东西的蔑视）e. I dislike an insincere person. （不满）f. I abhor parasite. （愤慨、蔑视、远离心态）g. I scorn flattery. （蔑视及嘲讽）再如下图所示，我们应该多用右边的词汇，而少有左边的一般词汇：General wordsSpecific wordsA good movieA suspenseful / romantic / lighthearted movieA nice smileA winning /angelic /purposeful smileSomeone I knowA friend / an acquaintance /a colleague /a coworkerWalkedPaced /strutted /strolled /marchedGood influenceShaping /far-reaching /profound influence词汇选择的第三个特点是感情色彩的表达。词汇有褒义、中性和贬义之分，因此在表达上我们应注意词的感情色彩。比如small的意思是面积很小，语气比较客观；而little表达的是小但是很可爱， ，语气非常主观，所以a small room和a little room传达的是完全不同的两个概念。一般情况下，本义相同的词的感情色彩可分为褒义、贬义和中性三大类。如下所示：贬义中性褒义skinnythinslender/slimnotoriouswell-knownfamousstenchsmellaroma/fragrancefatteningrichnourishingpoliticianlegislatorstatesman这里我们要提一个经常被学生无用的词Propaganda，很多学生把它理解为宣传，因此会写出the department of propaganda, to propaganda the new policy之类的句子。但是这类句子往往会引起西方人的误解，因为在英语中，propaganda是贬义词，指通过传播某种信息来影响人们的观点，这与我们要表达的观点截然相反。在这类句子中我们应该用的词是publicize 或者publicity。像这样被中国学生无用的词汇还有peasant 和farmer, 前一个词包含有粗俗与无知的意思，而后一个词才应该是学生索要表达的农夫的意思。以上是词汇使用方面应该注意的三个方面，除此以外，我们在平时学习时，可以多积累一些好词或好的词组以丰富我们的词汇量和所要表达的意思。有些同义词经常连在一起使用，能增强文章的感染力和说服力，如：形容词同义词组There are three kinds of book owner. The first has all the standard sets and best sellersunread, untouched. The second has a great many booksa few of them read through, most of them clean and shiny as the day they were bought. The third has a few books or manyevery one of them dog-eared and dilapidated, shaken and loosened by continual use, marked and scribbled in from front to back. Is it false respect, you may ask, to preserve intact and unblemished a beautifully printed book, an elegant bound edition?动词同义词词组：If theyre not too embarrassed to tell you the truth, theyll say that they are appalled and frightened by the presidents deficit.名词同义词组：But serene, calm, aloof, you stand as the nations war guardians, as its lifeguard from the raging tides of international conflict, as its gladiator in the arena of battle. For a century-and-a-half you have defended, guarded, and protected its hallowed traditions of liberty and freedom, of right and justice.副词词组：We need to talk much more candidly and openly about death and dying. We treat death as if it were optional, but alas, we cannot erase the hard fact of death. 类似的同义词词组还有很多，例如：Scream and shout (大吼大叫)Trip and fall （失足摔跤）Regulate and control (规范控制) Recognize and acknowledge (承认并认可)Possible and feasible (可能并可行)Vigorous and vibrant (繁荣兴旺、生机勃勃)Fair and sound (公平合理)Cool and aloof (冷漠而疏远)Right and proper (恰当合理)Alive and kicking (活力四射，充满生机)Clear and clean (清晰鲜明)Alone and unaided (孤立无援)New and creative (新鲜有创意)Setbacks and failures (挫折和失败)Strain and stress (压力)Love and peace (爱与和平)Prejudice and inequality (偏见和不平等)Goals and aims( 目的和目标)Defeat and failure (失败和挫折)Core and crux (症结)Hearth and home (家园)Hunger and starvation (饥饿)Tension and irritability (紧张易怒)Candidly and openly (开诚布公地)Unless and until (除非)一篇好文章只是用词确切还远远不够，还要有效地组词成句，有效地处理不同的句式。句子可长可短， 同一件事，可以用不同的句式表达。如果句子清一色是简单句，文章必定很单调乏味。如果全篇充满了冗长的复杂句，读起来也是很费力。最好的方法是以简单句为基础，配合适当的并列句和复杂句。简单句可长可短，通常要加些附属成分，如分词短语、介词短语、副词短语、不定式动词短语，以及其他缩略成分。总之，作者可根据情况，使句子多样化，使文章灵活多姿。例如，下列五个句子的基本概念一样，但是句子不同，内容重点也有些差别：a. The goats grazed peacefully in the farm and were unaware of the approaching wolf. (并列分句)b. Grazing peacefully, the goats in the farm were unaware of the approaching wolf. （现在分词 + 简单句）c. In the farm, the goats grazed peacefully and were unaware of the approaching wolf. （副词短语+并列分句）d. There were goats grazing peacefully in the farm, unaware of the approaching wolf. （简单句+形容词短语）e. As the goats grazed peacefully in the farm, they were unaware of the approaching wolf. （时间状语从句+ 主句）又如对以下两个简单句的不同组合：1) The young pilot was on his first overseas training.2) He felt very uneasy.a. The young pilot on his first overseas training felt very uneasy.b. The young pilot felt very uneasy during his first overseas training.c. The young pilots first overseas training made him feel very uneasy.d. Extreme uneasiness seized the young pilot on his first overseas training.e. The young pilot was on his first overseas training, feeling very uneasy.f. It being his first overseas training, the extreme uneasiness seized the young pilot.g. Being on his first overseas training, the young pilot felt very uneasy.h. The young pilot was on his first overseas training and felt vey uneasy.i. The young pilot, who was on his first overseas training, felt very uneasy.j. When the young pilot was on his first overseas training, he felt very uneasy.k. As the young pilot was on his first overseas training, he felt very uneasy.l. The young pilot was on his first overseas training, so that he felt very uneasy.在上述12和句子中，ag 是简单句；h是并列句； il是复杂句。简单句除b 和g之外，其他五句，用的人并不多。复杂句常用的句式如j和k 这两句；接着便是并列句h。因此专业四级作文在句式上要求学生尽量多用不同形式的表达方式，做到长短结合，同时也要能够用复杂句句式来写作。下面我们在具体看如何构建长句和复杂句式。复合句即长句是由两个或两个以上的独立从句通过并列连词、转折连词或短语、关联词、分号或冒号连接而成。使用并列连词（如and, or, nor, but, for, so, yet）的情况有： She carried a thin, small cane made from an umbrella, and with this she kept tapping the frozen earth in front of her. 使用转折连词或短语(however, therefore, nevertheless consequently, finally, still, thus以及 for example, in fact, on the other hand, for instance)的例句如：Aerobic exercise can help lower blood pressure; however, people with high blood pressure should still limit salt intake. 再如：The saxophone does not belong to the brass family; in fact, it is a member of the woodwind family.关联词（如not onlybut also等）的使用，如：Either he left his coat in his locker, or he left it on the bus. 分号的使用，如：Theodore Roosevelt was president after the Spanish-American War; Andrew Johnson was president after Civil War. 冒号的使用如：They thought they knew the outcome: Truman would lose to Dewey.复杂句是由一个独立从句和至少一个从属句构成。从属连词或关系代词把独立从句和从属句连接起来并暗示两者之间的关系。如：After the town was evacuated, the hurricane began. 再如：Officials watched the storm, which threatened to destroy the town. 常用的从属连词有：after, although, as, as though, as if, because, before, even though, in order that, now that, once, rather than, since, so that, that, thought, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, while等； 常用的关系代词有：that, whatever, who, whose, whom, what, which, whoever, whomever等。 长度句式的结合是写作必须掌握的技巧。一段文字只有短句或长句会很枯燥，可以在一些短句子的段落中加入长句，形成长短结合，使句子看起来错落有致，更有趣。如以下的段落：Drag racing began in California in the 1940s. it was an alternative to street racing. Street racing was illegal and dangerous. It flourished in the 1950s and 1960s. eventually, it became almost a rite of passage. Then during the 1970s, almost one-third of Americas racetrackers closed. Today, however, drag racing is making a comeback. 以上的这段话全部是由短句构成，通过运用上面讲过的把简单句改成复合句或复杂句的方法，可以把这段改成：Drag racing began in California in the 1940s as an alternative to street racing, which as illegal and dangerous. It flourished in the 1950s and 1960s, eventually becoming almost a rite of passage. Then, during the 1970s, almost one-third of Americas racetracks closed. Today, however, drag racing is making a comeback.以上的内容是如何选词、造句，而文章的扩展段落是文章的主体， 是一篇文章的骨干。从专业四级通常的做法来看，一般由三个自然段组成， 其功能是支持、例证、推展或扩充首段里德篇章主题。 一篇文章成功与否，很大程度上取决于段落的扩展质量。 一个完整的扩展段落（unified paragraph）应该包括主题句（topic sentence）、支撑细节或扩展句（supporting details）, 有时还包括一个收尾句（closing）。如： Frank Lloyd Wright, Americas leading architect of the first half century, believed that his houses should be blend naturally with their building sites. Consequently, he designed several prairie houses, whose long, low lines echoed the flat earth plane. Built of brick, stone, and natural wood, the houses shared a similar texture with their background. Large windows were often used to blend the interior and interior of the house. Wright punctuated the lines and spaces of the houses with greenery in planters to further make the buildings look like part of nature.在此段落中，主题句是houses should be blend naturally with their building sites.扩展句是：1) long, low lines echoed the flat earth plane2)brick, stone, and natural wood provide same texture with their backgrounds3)windows blend inside with outside 4)greenery in planters to further imitates the natural surroundings 在比如： (主题句)My mother has told me certain rules for getting along with others. (扩展句1)Dont argue with parents; they will think you dont love them. (扩展句2) Dont argue with children; they will think themselves victimized. (扩展句3)Dont argue with spouses; they will think you are a tiresome mate. (扩展句4) Dont argue with strangers; they will think you are not friendly. (收尾句)My mothers rules, in fact, can be summed up in two words: Dont argue.接下来我们要分别关注主题句、扩展句又称为支撑句、以及结论句的写法。首先是主题句的写法。主题句的观点应该明确、清晰、具体、有聚焦，而不应该模棱两可、泛泛而谈。好的主题句不仅可以帮助读者理解段落的主旨，而且还可以帮助写作者选择素材、组织结构和扩展观点。例如：泛泛而谈：Driving a car can be hazardous. (When to drive?)明确具体：Drunk driving is hazardous.泛泛而谈：Too many people treat animals badly in experiments. (What people? Badly how? What kind of experiments?) 明确具体：The cosmetic industry often harms animals in unnecessary experiments designed to test their products. 泛泛而谈：Grades are an unfair pain in the neck. (Again, the focus is too broad. All grades? Unfair how?)明确具体：A course grade based on one multiple-choice exam doesnt accurately measure a students knowledge of the subject.泛泛而谈：Finding the right job is important and can lead to rewarding experiences. (Note both vague language and a double focus: important and can lead to rewarding experience.)明确具体：Finding the right job can lead to an improved sense of self-esteem. 其次是扩展句的写法。扩展句是以主题句为中心，逐步展开段落、扩展内容的部分，它一般由一组连贯的句子组成，扩展句要内容详实、简明扼要、表达清楚、有较强的说服力。扩展句紧扣主题句中的关键词而展开，上下转承结合得当。一般来说，每个自然段除了主题句外与结尾句外，还包含了36个扩展句。所以，写好了扩展句便基本上完成一个自然段落。例如：Nowadays, the computer has found wide applications in many areas. It is used not only in calculations, but also engineering project, designing, language learning, etc. In todays society, computers can be seen working for us almost everywhere, in shops, banks, post offices, schools, hospitals and so on. Computers have even entered most families. Children can learn various subjects on computers, and parents can enjoy some entertainment from the computers, too.很显然，本段的扩展句是：It is used not only后的四个句子，这些句子都紧紧围绕主题句（第一句）展开，叙述计算机在各个领域的应用，这些句子同时在语法和语义上是完整和连贯的，扣住了主题句的中心思想。所以我们可以看出，扩展句有以下几个特点：1） 扩展句一般多为长句；2） 扩展句要能支持主题句的观点，因此要求有具体的facts，我们可以运用理论论证、事实论证、举例论证、数据论证或解释说明等各种方式来写扩展句；3） 扩展句在补充说明主题句时要直接，单刀直入，任何与主题句无关的句子都应删去；4） 要正确地使用连接词，做好扩展句和主题句之间及扩展句和扩展句之间的过度和衔接，使这些句子之间有逻辑性和连贯性；下面是扩展句写法的例子：Topic 1: The Importance of Extracurricular ActivitiesThesis: I think both ways have their advantages, but I prefer the latter. Topic sentences: Firstly, good health and strong body can improve our study efficiency and make great ac