词汇学期末复习各章知识点.docx

Chapter one The basic concepts of words and vocabulary1.1 The definition of a word （1）一个最小的自由形态 （2）一个发音的集合体 （3）一个意义单位 （4）能独自影响句子的形式 因此，我们能说“词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。”1.2 vocabularyAll the words in a language make up its vocabulary. The general estimate of the English vocabulary is over one million words.1.3 Sound and meaning词语是一个符号，代表着世界上其他的事物。每种世界文化已经赞成一定的读音将代表一定的人，事，地方，特性，过程，行动，当然是在语言系统之外。这种象征性的联系几乎总是主观的，并且“在代表事物和思想的声音和实际的事物和思想之间没有法定关系。”1.4 sound and form在古英语中，口语比今天更忠实地代表书面语，但随着语言的发展，越来越多的不同出现在口语和书面语之间。有以下几点原因：1. 内因是因为英语字母表采用罗马字母，罗马字母没有独立的字母代表每个读音，因此一些字母代表两个读音或者组合在一起发音。 2. 另一个原因是发音比拼写的变化快，在一些时候还拉开了距离。在最近五百年里，尽管口语发音已经出现了显著的变化，却没有相应的拼写变化。Another reason for this is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.3. 第三个原因是一些早期的书写员发明了一些不同Those scribes had made some change to the word spelling4. 到 1500年年末，印刷已经变得非常普及。它有助于固定单词的拼写。同时，读音继续如往常变化，以此带来了更多的不同。In the late 1500, printing became well established. It helped to freeze and standardize the spelling of words. Meanwhile, sounds continued to change as usual, thus bringing more difference.5. 当英语从其他语言中借鉴单词时，它同样借用了拼写。早期的借词被同化，后来则不再遵守英语的发音规则和拼写规则最后得出的结论是； 英语的书写是发音形式不完善的代表 the written form of English is, there for , an imperfect representation of the phonemic elements of the spoken language. 1.5 classification of words根据使用频率，单词可以分为基础词和非基础词。可以根据概念分成实词和虚词，可以根据来源分为本地词和借词。 1. basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基础词和非基础词基础词的特征：1. All national character所有的民族特征（基础词代表我们身边世界中最常见的事物和非凡的现象。这是所有说那种语言的人都要知道的，这包括和下面方面相关的词，包括自然现象，认得身体和亲属关系，动植物，动作、尺码、范围、状态，数词、代词、介词、连词） 2. Stability 稳定性（基础词已经被使用若干世纪，例如人火山水太阳月亮。由于它们代表生活需要的普遍事物，它们很可能保持不变）3. Productivity 多产性（基础词大多是词根。它们每个都能单独使用同时可以和其他词根或词缀一起构成新4. polysemy 多义性5. collocability 搭配性 全民性是区别通用词和其他词的最重要特征非基础词， 没有上面描述特征的词，不属于语言的正常核心，它们包括下面：1. Terminology 专业术语（包括特定学科和学术领域的技术术语）2. Jargon 行话（用于特定的词汇，通过特定艺术，科学，商业和专业领域的成员在彼此之 间交流）3. Slang 俚语4. Argot 黑话（通常是指罪犯的黑话。他的应用被限制在下层文化团体，外人很难理解他）5. Dialectal words 方言6. Archaisms 古语（是曾经一度普遍使用现在却被限制使用的词和形式。他们主要出现在古诗， 法律文件，宗教 作品和演讲中）7. Neologisms 新词语 2. content words and functional words 内容词和功能词 内容词：Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They are nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals. 内容词显示清楚的概念，因为被认为是概念词。他们包括名词，动词,形容词，副词和数词. 功能词: Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and article belong to this category. 功能词没有他们自己的概念。因此，他们也称作“空词”。由于他们的主要功能是去表达概念间的关系，词语间和句子间的关系，他们被认为是“结构词”。介词，连词，辅助词和冠词属于这一类3. native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词本地词:本地词在五世纪由日尔曼人带到英国，盎格鲁，撒克逊，还有朱特人，因此被认为是盎格鲁撒克逊词汇。盎格鲁撒克逊源头词数量很少，大约在 50000到60000之间，但是他们构成了基本词储的主流，并且处在语言的核心。因此，真正的基础词其实也是真正的本地词。和基本词储的特征相分离，和外来词相对比，本地词还有两个其他特征： 1) Neutral in style 风格中性 于本地词表示人类社会中最常见事物，他们被所有人使用，在所有地方使用，在所有场合使用，在任何时候使用。因此，他们没有独特的特点2) Frequent in use 频繁使用外来词:外来词分为四类：1. Denizens 同化词 Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now are well assimilated into English Language. In other words they have come to conform to the English way of pronunciation and spelling. 2. Aliens 非同化词 Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. These words are immediately recognizable as foreign in origin. 3. Translation loans 译借词(翻译借词是从英语中的现有材料中取材构成，但是 模仿其他语言的构成方式，包括 words translated according to the meaning 和 Words translated according to the sound) 4. semantic loans 借义词 English has borrowed a now meaning for an existing word in the language Chapter two the development of the English vocabulary2.1 the Indo-European language family 印欧语系 Balto-Slavic: Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, Slovenian, RussianIndo-Iranian: Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany,(后三个源自Sanskrit)Eastern setArmenian Are the sole modern languages in the two respective familiesAlbanian Celtic: Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Cornish, Breton, Pictish Italic: Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian, Roumanian Hellenic: Greek Germanic: Scandinavian languages (Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish, Swedish), German, Dutch, Flemish, English Hittite Tocharianfind no descendants of their own Western set2.2 three phases of the historical development The first peoples known to inhabit the land were Celts. Their languages were dialects of still another branch of the Indo-European language Family.1. old English (450-1150) The Germanic tribes, called Angles, Saxons, Frisians and Jutes invaded the rich lowland. Their language, known as Anglo- Saxon, dominated and almost totally blotted out the Celtic. Old English (the Anglo-Saxon) has a vocabulary of about 50000 to 60000 words, which are almost monogeneous and entirely Germanic with only a few borrowings from Latin and Scandinavian.Old English was a highly inflected language. Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs had complex systems of endings or vowel changes or both, which digger greatly form the language that we use today.2. Middle English (1150-1500)The Norman Conquest produced two great results. First, it brought to an insular nation a new and larger continental culture. Second, Norman French became the polite speech.3. Modern English (1500 up to the present) Early Modern English (1500-1700) In the early period of Modern English, Europe saw a new upsurge in learning ancient Greek and Roman classics, which is known as the Renaissances. Late Modern English (1700 up to the present) Since the mid-seventeenth century, England experienced the Bourgeois Revolution followed by the Industrial Revolution and rose to be a great economic power. Thousands of new words have been created to express new ideas, inventions, and scientific achievements.2.3 General Characteristics 1. Receptivity, adaptability and heterogeneity(容纳性，适应性，多样性) 2. Simplicity of inflection (简化) As one scholar notes, Old English was characterized by “full endings”, Middle English by “leveled endings”, and Modern English by “lost endings”3. Relatively fixed word-order2.4 Foreign elements in the English vocabulary Latin, Greek, French, Scandinavian, Other foreign elements: Italian, German, Dutch, Spanish and Portuguese, Celtic 2.5 Growth of contemporary English vocabulary There are three main sources of new words:1. The rapid development of modern science and technology 2. Social, economic and political changes3. The influence of other cultures and language2.6 Modes of vocabulary development Modern English vocabulary develops through three channels: creation, semantic change, borrowing(创造新词，旧词变义，借用外来词) Chapter three Morphological Structure of English Words3.1Morphemes 词素 Morphemes: minimal meaningful units3.2 Morphs and Allomorphs 词素形式和词素变体 Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. 语言中最小的不可再分的意义单位是词素morpheme(又可称为形位，语素)，词素是抽象的，它是通过词素形式morph变现出来的。词素还具有变体形式，称为allomorph(词素变体) All allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs, which represent one morpheme. We class morph together as allomorphs of a single morpheme. Many morphemes can have more than one allomorph33Classfying Morphemes Free versus bound 自由词素和粘附词素 Derivational versus inflectional 派生词素和曲折词素 Lexical versus grammatical 词汇语素和语法词素1. Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences.Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound.Free morphemes are all roots.(这里的root是free root)Bound morphemes consist of either roots or affixes.（这里的root是bound root）2. Derivational versus inflectional morphemesMorphemes which are used to derive new words are known as derivational morphemes.Inflectional morphemes indicate the syntactic relationship between words and function as grammatical markers. Inflectional morphemes are confined to suffixes.(包括名词复数s,es,动词三单s,es,名词所有格s,形容词比较级er,est,规则动词过去式和过去分词ed,动词现在分词和动名词ing)3. Content versus grammatical morphemesContent morphemes are lexical morphemes which are used to derive new words, so also known as derivational morphemes. Grammatical morphemes encompass both inflectional affixes and free morphemes such as in, and, do, have, they, while, where, but and that, which are traditionally called the functional words.3.4 Identifying morphemes3.5 Morpheme and word-formationIn word-formation, morphemes are conventionally labeled root, stem, base and affix.1. AffixAffixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All affixes are bound morphemes.Affixes can fall into prefix and suffix.2. Root, Stem and Base A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. A root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in handcuff. A stem is that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. In other words, any form to which an inflectional affix is attached is a stem. A base is used in this book as an all-purpose term, referring to a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. It can be a root or stem.Chapter four Word Formation构词法：affixation(加缀法) compounding(复合法) conversion（词性的转换） blending(拼缀法) Clipping （截短法） acronymy （首字母缩略法） back-formation（逆生法） sound reduplication（声音重复）4.1 Affixation加缀法 1. prefixation 前缀 Negative prefixes 表示否定的前缀a- dis- in- non- un- Reversative or privative prefixes 逆反前缀de- dis- un- Pejorative prefixes 贬义前缀mal- mis- pseudo- Prefixes of degree or size 表示范围和程度的前缀arch- co- extra- hyper- macro- micro- mini- out- over- sub- super- ser- ultra- under- Prefixes of orientation and attitude 表示方向和态度的前缀anti- contra- counter- pro- Locative prefixes 方位前缀extra - fore- inter- intra- super- tele- trans- Prefixes of time and orderex- fore- post- pre- re- Number prefixesbi- di- multi- semi- tri- uni- Conversion prefixes 专类词缀a- be- en- miscellaneous prefixes 混杂的词缀auto- neo- pan- proto- vice- 2. suffixation 后缀法 noun suffixes 名词词缀1) denominal nouns 词缀加在名词后，构成名词conc人ete 构成具体名词-eer -er -ess -ette -let sterabstract 构成抽象名词 dom ery -ful -hood -ing -ism -ship2) deverbal nouns 词缀加在动词后，构成名词-ant -ee -ent -er -age -al -ance -ation -ence -ing 3) de-adjective nouns 词缀加载名词后，构成名词 -ity -ness 4)noun and adjective suffixes 名词和形容词后缀 A small number of suffixes, when added to bases related to human beings or nationality names, yield words that can be used both as nouns and adjectives. -ese -an -ist -ite adjective suffixes形容词后缀1) denominal suffixes在名词后加缀，成为形容词-ful -ish -less -like -ly -y -al -ial -ical -esque -ic -ous -eous -ious -uous 2) deverbal suffixes 在动词后加缀，成为形容词 -able -ible -ative -ive -sive 3) adverb suffixes在副词后加缀，成为形容词 -ward -wise 4) verb suffixes 在动词后加缀，成为形容词 -ate -en - ify -ize -ise4.2 compounding复合法Compounding is the formation of new words by joining two or more bases.1. Characteristics of compounds复合词的特点1) phonological features 语音方面的特点In compounds the word stress usually occurs on the first constituent.一般情况下，复合词重音都在前面。注意区分： a hot house 温室 a hot house 热房子2) semantic features语义上的特点Every compound should express single idea just as one word.3) Grammatical features 语法特征Compounds tend to fill a single grammatical slot in a sentence.Compound nouns show their plural forms by taking inflectional s at the end.4) Orthographical features 正确拼写特征In most cases, compounds are written wither solid or hyphenated. Three forms:flowerpot flower-pot flower pot formation 2. Formation of compoundsNoun compoundsAdjective compoundsVerb compounds4.3 conversion 词性的转换 Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class, by turning words of one part of speech to those of another part speech in traditional terms. New words are new only in grammatical sense. Since words that are make do not change in morphological structure but in function, process in also known as functional shift.1. conversion to nouns Deverbal 动词转换为名词 eg.lauf De-adjectively 形容词转换为名词eg.white Miscallaneous conversion 其他词性的转换eg. a given2. conversion to verbs Denominal 名词转换为动词 eg. pocket the money put the money in the pocket De-adjectival 形容词转换为动词 eg. wet his shoes Miscellaneous conversion 其他词性的转换 eg.we downed a few beers.3. conversion to adjectives 大部分情况下都是名词转换为形容词。 名词在转换为名词时会发生一些变化：Voiceless to voiced consonant 清辅音转换为浊辅音eg.advice/-s/ advice/-z/Initial to end stress 重音由词首变到词尾eg. conduct conduct4.4 blending拼缀法 Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. 有四种形式：1. head + taileg. autocide from (automobile+suicide)2. head+headeg. somsat from(communication+satellite)3. head+wordeg. medicare from(medical +care)4. word+taileg. lunarnaut from(lunar+astronant) 4.5 Clipping 截短法 It is the formation of new words by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. 有四种形式：1. Front clippingEg. quake (earthquake)2. Back clippingEg. deli（delicatessen）3. Front and back clippingEg. flu(influenza)4. Phrase clippingEg. pop(popular music)4.6 Acronymy 首字母缩略法1. initialisms (按照字母发音来读，如VOA)2. acronyms(拼读，如AIDS)4.7 back-formation 逆生法Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. Back-formation is therefore the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes, so called because many of the removed endings are not suffixes bur inseparable parts of the words.Eg. begger-beg emotion-emote babysitter-babysit Lazy -laze4.8 sound reduplication 声音重复As the term indicates, sound reduplication is the formation of compound words by repeating the same element with little or no change. Words made in this way are known as reduplicatives.Eg. bow-wow(of dog) ping-pong dilly-dally tip-top4.9 commonization of proper names专有名词转化的词1. names of people2. names of places3. names of books4. tradenames 商品名 Chapter five Word Meaning and Componential Analysis5.1 Wording MeaningIt is agreed that a word is the combination of word-form and its meaning. “Form” refers to both its pronunciation and spelling. “Meaning” is what the form stands for.1. Reference所指关系Reference is the relationship between language and the world. Only a connection has been established between the linguistic sign and a referent, does the sign become meaningful. The reference of a word to a thing outside the language is arbitrary and conventional. Although reference is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something definite. 所指关系是语言和世界之间的联系。只有当语言符号和一样参照物之间的联系已被建立，符号才变得有意义。一个指代语言以外事物的单词的所指关系是随意的和约定俗成的。尽管参考是一种抽象，然而在背景的帮助下，它能指示特定的事物。The same thing can have different referring expressions without causing any confusion. The cat can be referred to as, say, the animal, my dear, Jassy, this, she and so on2. Concept 概念Concept, which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind. It is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, and language and so on. 概念，是在语言之外，是人类认识的结果，反映人心中的客观世界。它是普遍的针对所有相同的人不考虑文化，种族，语言等等。Even in the same language, the same concept can be expressed in different words. For example, much and many both have the same concept, but collocate with different words, much time, much money, but many people, many book.3. Sense 语感 Sense denotes the relationships inside the language. Every word that has meaning has sense but not every word has reference. For example, probable, nearly, and, if, but, yes, none of which refer to anything in the world, all have some sense. Just as one can talk of the same concept in different languages, so one can talk of expressions in different dialects of one language as having the same sense: Pavement in British English and sidewalk in American English. 语感表达语言内部的关系。有意义的词都有语感，但并不都有所指关系。例如，”可能“”几乎“”和“”如果“”但是“”是的，没有一个指代世界中的事物，但是都有语感。就像一个人可以用不同的语言说同一个概念，因此人可以说表达在同一语言的不同方言，由于有相同的语意：人行道在英式英语中和人行道在美式英语中有相同的语意。5.2 Motivation 理据As we know, the relationship between the word-form and meaning is conventional and arbitrary, most words can be said to be mon-motivated. The connection of the sign and meaning does not account for the meaning. Nevertheless, English does have words the meanings of which are transparent and reasonably explicable.如我们所知，词的形式和意义之间的关系是约定俗成和随意的，大多数词可以说是没有动机的。，符号和意义的关系没有法定解释。然而，英语中许多词它的意义在一定程度上能够解释。 1. Onomatopoeic motivation 拟声理据In the modern English one may find some words whose phonetic forms suggest their meanings as the words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. 在现代英语中人可能发现一些词声音暗示了它们的意义。因为这些词是模仿自然界的声音而成。Eg, bow-wow, bang, ping-pang, miaow, ha ha, tick-tuck.2. Morphological Motivation 形态理据Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many of them are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Often, when one knows the meanings of the morphemes or bases, one can