阅读中语法体现.doc

雅思阅读中的八大语法体现一、并列平行结构Co-ordination Constructions “并列平行结构”是一个比较笼统的提法。事实上，在一个较长的英语句子中，并列平行的部分可能是几个句子，也可能是几个并列的短语成分。但是，其构成规律都可用以下句型来表示：句型I. A;B ( 其中A和B代表两个并列分句，或是两个并列的短语)句型II A，whereas/while B(其中A和B代表两个并列分句，或是两个并列的短语，where as/ while 为联结词)句型III A（，）and /or B(其中和代表两个并列分句，或是两个并列的短语；逗号有时可以没有，在肯定句中，多用来连接，而在否定句中，多用or来连接)句型IV ，and/or（其中A和B代表多个并列分句，或是多个并列短语；在肯定句中，常用and连接，而在否定句中，常用or来连接）Insurance is compulsory and costly and parking both on and off campus can be problem requiring additional expense.译文保险是必需的而且费用很高；在校园内外停车可能是个问题，会要求额外的费用。Geologists believe that the warning signs for a major earthquake may include sudden fluctuations in local seismic activity, tilting and other deformations of the Earths crust, changes in the measured strain across a fault zone, and variations in the electrical properties of underground rocks.分析Step 1从前往后阅读该句时，不难看出此句是由Geologists believe that + 宾语从句构成的主干结构，而且宾语从句的主语，谓语部分也很清楚，即：the warning signs for a major earthquake may include. 现在的关键是把include 后面的宾语部分弄清楚。Step 2 对于include 后面的宾语部分，即：sudden fluctuations in local seismic activity, tilting and other deformations of the Earths crust, changes in the measured strain across a fault zone, and variations in the electrical properties of underground rocks，谁与谁是并列平行呢？我们不妨用上面所讲的方法来分析一下。很容易，我们能发现这种情况是属于句型IV. 也就是说，要先找到连接词and 之后的那一个成分，然后以该成分的意思为出发点，从后往前，以逗号为停顿段开点来倒着找，最终逐个找出与该词在意思上平行的其他多个各并列成分。Step 3 显然，连接词and之后的那一个成分是：variations in the electrical properties of underground rocks.然后，以该句的意思为出发点，从后往前，以逗号为停顿段开点来倒着找，我们分别找到了：sudden fluctuations in local seismic activity, tilting and other deformations of the Earths crust, 以及changes in the measured strain across a fault zone这三个相对独立的词群。这样，我们就找到了the warning signs for a major earthquake may include 之后的4个并列平行成分， 即：（1）sudden fluctuations in local seismic activity,（2）tilting and other deformations of the Earths crust,（3）changes in the measured strain across a fault zone,（4）and variations in the electrical properties of underground rocks. Step 4最后，我们把刚才的分析连起来理解，不难发现这个长句的结构是这样的：主语+ 谓语从句（宾语从句主语宾语从句谓语宾语从句宾语宾语从句宾语宾语从句宾语宾语从句宾语）译文地质学家们相信大地震的警告信号包括：当地地震活动的突然波动，地壳倾斜或其它的变形，跨断层处测出的张力的改变，以及地下岩石的电厂性质的变动。练习题：1. The medieval scholar made almost no attempt to investigate the anatomy of plants, their mechanisms of growth, or the ways in which they are related to one another 分析investigate 后所带的宾语是3 个平行并列成分，它们的排列类型符合句型IV，即：A，B，or C。具体来说这3 个成分分别是：（1）the anatomy of plants, (2) their mechanisms of growth,() or the ways in which they are related to one another.因为该句的谓语带有否定含词no，所以用or而不是and来把第个并列成分和前个连起来。译文那位中世纪的学者几乎没有尝试着去调查植物的解剖结构，生长机制，以及它们相互之间是如何联系在一起的。2. While some students are able to supplement their funds with money from part-time or vacation work, such work is not always regular even when available, and this can contribute to anxiety and study problems.分析先将while 所引导的从句部分略读，阅读主句时，可以发现它是由2个并列句组成，即（1） such work is not always regular even when available，（2）and this can contribute to anxiety and study problems.译文尽管一些学生能用兼职或者假期打I挣的钱老资助自己上学，但是 这样的I作即使能找到，也不能保证定期都有，这样就可能会给学生带来焦虑和学习上的问题。3. Already, waste paper constitutes 70%of paper used for packaging and advances in the technology required to remove ink from the paper have allowed a higher recycled content in newsprint and writing.分析表面上看，该句中的第1个and 很容易被误以为是连接constitutes 和advances 这两个并列成分， 仔细看时，会发现那样的话，就有2个不妥之处：首先，如果constitutes 和advances真是并列平行关系，在该句中的waste paper 的谓语，那么waste paper advances 的说法在逻辑上不太恰当；其次，如果advances是前一句的谓语动词，那么其后的一系列谓语动词，如have allowed，就找不着相应的搭配关系了。所以该句中的第1个land不是连接constitutes和advances这两个词。这时，我们在这个and处画个记号，然后把constitutes和advances这2个词段开，constitutes往前一句里放，advances则往后面的内容里放。此时，我们才发现原来这个长句是由and连接起来的2个并列句，即：（1）Already, waste paper constitutes 70%of paper used for packaging（2）and advances in the technology required to remove ink from the paper have allowed a higher recycled content in newsprint and writing.译文废纸已经构成了70的包装用纸；纸张去墨技术的进步已使得新闻I出版和书写用纸的循环利用的合量更高。二、分词短语例1.When he was playing basketball, tom saw a stranger who entered the classroom.如上文所述，前一个分句的主语he和后一个主语tom指同一个人，并且前一个分句的主语he 之后是系动词was, 那么，前一个分句的主语和紧随其后的那个系动词was都可以一起省略掉，也就是说，此句可以省略成一个带有现在分词短语的单句，即：playing basketball, tom saw a stranger who entered the classroom.例3：Located on the south-east coast of Australia in the temperate zone, it enjoys a mild climate, averaging 14.5 hours of sunshine per day in summer and 10.25 hours in winter.实际上，此句的完整说法应该是：（it is ）located on the south-east coast of Australia in the temperate zone, (and) it enjoyed a mild climate, (which averages) 14.5 hours of sunshine per day in summer and 10.25 hours in winter.因为（it is）located on the south-east coast of Australia in the temperate zone, (and) it enjoyed a mild climate, 之间的主语相同，都是it，并且前一个分句的主语it 之后是系动词is,那么，前一个分句的主语和紧随其后的那个系动词is 都可以省略掉， 也就是说，此句可以省略成一个带有过去分词短语的单句，表示两者是被动关系，即：Located on the south-east coast of Australia in the temperate zone, it enjoyed a mild climate.练习题：1. First established by the British as a convict settlement in 1788, it is a modern cosmopolitan city that has developed into one of the nations major industrial, business, and manufacturing centers.分析实际上，此句的完整说法应该是：（it was）first established by the British as a convict settlement in 1788, it is a modern cosmopolitan city that has developed into one of the nations major industrial, business, and manufacturing centers.因为（it was）first established by the British as a convict settlement in 1788, 和（and）it is a modern cosmopolitan city that has developed into one of the nations major industrial, business, and manufacturing centers. 之间的主语是相同的，都是it, 并且前一个分句的主语it 之后是系动词was， 那么，前一个分句的主语it 和紧随其后的那个系动词was 都可以省略掉，也就是说，此句可以省略成一个带有过去分词短语的单句，表示两者是被动关系。译文最早在1788年，英国人将它建成为罪犯流放地；它现在已然成了一个国际化大都会，是全国主要的I业，商业和制作业中心之一。2. The temperature of the exhaust gases is well above 500C, meaning that solid oxide fuel cells are very attractive for electricity and heat generation as, in addition to supplying electricity, the leftover amounts of heat created during the process could be used to produce heat for industries, provide hot water supplies or warn buildings.分析实际上，整个句子的主句（即：The temperature of the exhaust gases is well above 500C）并不复杂，真正让句子变得棘手的是由meaning 所引出来的一个非常长的现在分词短语，即：meaning that solid oxide fuel cells are very attractive for electricity and heat generation as, in addition to supplying electricity, the leftover amounts of heat created during the process could be used to produce heat for industries, provide hot water supplies or warn buildings.在该县在分词短语中，有2个句子，其中第二个句子是由as （因为.）来引导的弱因果关系句，即：（1）solid oxide fuel cells are very attractive for electricity and heat generation，（2）as, in addition to supplying electricity, the leftover amounts of heat created during the process could be used to produce heat for industries, provide hot water supplies or warn buildings.并且，在这个由as引导的弱因果关系句里面，有用逗号断开的插入语in addition to supplying electricity; 理解此句时，应该先跳过该插入语，直接先将由as引导的弱因果关系句理解清楚，然后再来看插入语的内容。译文那些废气的温度远远高于500摄氏度， 这就意味着；对于发电和供热来说，固体氧化燃料电池是很不错的，因为除了供电外，在该过程中所产生的剩余热量可以用于I业供热，供应热水，或者给建筑物供暖。三、插入语在雅思考试中，因为很多句子都带有插入语结构，所以整个句子看起来冗长而复杂，往往使得很多考生读着读着就对主句的内容失去了线索，因而不知所云，产生了理解上的障碍。其实，考生只要掌握插入语结构的特征，并有针对性地做些相应的练习，即可轻松突破因插入语结构所带来的阅读障碍。插入语的标志（1）插入语结构前后用逗号段开，如：the book, I think, does not provide information about the population in that area.其中，插入语结构I think 便是这种特点。（2）插入语结构前后用破折号段开，如：the paper said the volcano destroyed most-if not all-of the buildings and constructions on the island。其中，插入语if not all 就属于此类结构。（3）插入语结构位于整个句子的最后，而且插入语之前用逗号和整个句子其他的内容隔开，如：He was the person who misguided the enemy, it turned out. 其中，插入语结构 it turned out 便是这中句式。插入语的语法作用因为插入语的内容与整个主句所要表达的内容无直接关系，且对于主句所要强调的内容无关键作用，所以，插入语的语法作用不太明显，也不太重要，往往只是对主句起到补充修饰，附加说明的作用，而且，其在句子中的位置也非常的灵活多变，请看下面几例：例1 ：The conclusion, Im afraid, is not true.例2： The conclusion is not true, Im afraid.例3:：Im afraid the conclusion is not true. 插入语的处理方法因为插入语的内容与整个主句所要表达的内容无太多的直接关系，往往只是对主要内容起到补充，限制，说明等作用，语法作用不太重要，所以，在阅读过程中，当读到带有插入语犯结构的长句，难句的时候，为了让自己看懂主句最重要的内容，建议考生先跳过用逗号，破折号的插入语部分来理解整个主句，然后，再来理解插入语结构的具体内容。比如：例4. The only way I know of dealing with this general human conceit is to remind ourselves that man is a brief episode in the life of a small planet on a little corner of the universe, and as we know, other parts of the cosmos may contain beings as superior to ourselves as we are to jellyfish.上句中的插入语结构是and as we know, 如果我们先不跳过这个插入语的话，对于这个本身已经很冗长，复杂的长句来说，考生阅读起来要困难得多。其实，上句是一个带有2个并列平行宾语从句的长句，即：The only way I know of dealing with this general human conceit is to remind ourselves that （1）man is a brief episode in the life of a small planet on a little corner of the universe, （2）and as we know, other parts of the cosmos may contain beings as superior to ourselves as we are to jellyfish.这对于把握整个句子的全貌有很大的帮助。因此， 该句的参考译文如下：对付这种人类普遍存在的自负，我所知道的唯一的办法就是提醒我们自己：人类不过是在位于宇宙小角落里的一个小星球上的一段短暂插曲而已，而且，正如我们所知道的那样，宇宙世界中的其他的地方可能存在比人类更高级的东西，就像我们自己比水母更高级一样。练习题：1. The convergence of those two growing trends-dropping out and logging on- exacerbates the serious consequences of a drop in political involvement and a rise in social isolation.分析句子中的两个破折号所夹的内容 dropping out and logging on 可以理解为插入语，其作用是对中心词trends 作补充说明。我们在理解整句的内容时，可先跳过这个插入语成分，等将整句的中心意思理解清楚之后再来体会该插入语即可。译文那两种不断发展的势头-放弃和参与-之间的融合加剧恶化了参与政治之势下降和社会隔阂之势上升的严重后果。2. Because the summer-time work of scientist tends to capture the publics imagination, with revelations about the ozone hole or whale numbers, people tend to overlook the efforts of the 20 or so winterers at each base-mostly trades people-who keep the bases going long after “the boffins(research scientists)have migrated to warmer climates.分析在这个因果关系的复合句中，表示原因的从句because the summer-time work of scientists tends to capture the publics imagination, with revelations about the ozone hole or whale numbers 中所带的词组 with revelations about the ozone hole or whale numbers 可以看作是插入语。译文因为能够透露一些有关臭氧洞或鲸鱼数量，在夏季I作的科学家们易于抓住公众的想象，因此，人们往往忽略了那些留在各个基地的20 人左右的冬季留守者-其中多数人是商人；在那些从事研究的科学家们转移去温暖地区后，这些冬季留守者使得基地能够长期维持下去。四、同位语同位语短语指在内容上对位于其前的名次、代词甚至全句进行补充、解释、说明，同时，在语法地位上和其前的名词、代词甚至全句完全相同、相等（比如：都是做主语、表语、宾语等）的短语或词组。例1.I was born in Dalian, a prosperous seaport town of northern China.分析句中的介词宾语Dalian之后所接的短语 “a prosperous seaport town of northern China” 在内容上是对位于其前的名词Dalian进行补充、解释、说明，同时，在语法地位上和其前的名词Dalian完全相同、相等，即：两者都是做介词in的宾语。所以，这种情况的同位语属于同位语短语的范畴。译文我出生在中国东北一座繁华的海港城市-大连。例2. During my stay in Australia last year, I lived downtown with Fred the carpenter.分析在人名Fred之后的内容 “the carpenter” 是对Fred进行解释和说明的同位语短语，其在语法上都是介词with 的宾语。译文去年我在澳大利亚期间，是和木匠Fred住在市中心。同位语从句指位于一些抽象名词（如fact, opinion, idea, effect, news, claim, thought, conclusion, information等）之后的、而且是用that 来引导的句子。在这种情况下的句子叫同位语从句，它所包含的语法成分是完整的，即：主语+谓语（+宾语），但是在内容含义上是对位于其前的中心词进行具体的说明或解释。例1. The news that China Succeeded in its entry into the WTO is indeed very exiting.分析句子的主干内容是：the news is indeed very exciting,其中the news 的具体内容就要靠that所引导的同位语从句来表达。译文中国成功地加入了世贸组织(WTO)这一消息着实让人激动。五、定语从句一、一般而言，关系代词who在定语从句中作主语，而关系代词whom在定语从句中作宾语。但是，在现代英语中，关系代词whom(在介词后除外)经常被who所代替，也就是说，who可以担当主语也可当宾语。而且，当关系代词whom(在介词后除外)或who在定语从句中作宾语的时候，还经常省略。例7He is my pal (who=whom) many people respect very much.他就是我那位赢得了很多人尊重的好友。二、关系代词that和who或whom可以互换也就是说，关系代词that 可以指人，在定语从句中可以作主语也可以作宾语。例8Any citizen who (that) breaks the regulations and civil laws deserves either a fine or a severe punishment.任何违反规定和民法的市民要么应该处以罚款，要么应该严惩不怠。三、.在有些句子中，“but可以作关系代词，它的意思是that(who；which)is(does)not”在这种句子中，位于but之前的主句中必须含有 “no”“ not“nothing”none”等否定词。例9There is nobody born but has to die in the world(There is nobody whothat has not to die in the world )世界上没有人是生而不死的。例10. There is not a girl but (=who would not) would prefer death to such a marriage女孩子宁死都不愿意结这种婚。例11There was not a guest at the party but agreed with Tom. (there was not a man at the party who did not agree with Tom)晚会上的人都同意Tom的意见。四、定语从句和同位语从句的区别请参阅本书同位语一章的相关阐述和例句。有必要搞清楚这两种定语从句的本质区别，因为雅思阅读考试当中，有些题目(比如说判断题)是属于细节题，这就要求考生弄懂一些细节的区别。限制性定语从句 指用来修饰先行词时必不可少的定语从句。也就是说，如果缺少了这个限制性定语从句，那么，主句的意思就不明确或不完整，先行词的意思就不明确，往往会产生歧义。非限制定语从句 指用来修饰现行词时必不可少的定语从句。也就是说，如果缺少了这个非限制性定语从句，那么，主句的意思依然明确和完整，不会受影响。它和主句之间常常有逗号断开。请比较例12和例13：例12Mr.Jacksons son, who is pursuing his doctoral studies in Australia，came back home last week for holiday stay杰克逊先生的儿子正在澳大利亚读博士，上周回家度假来了。(暗指：杰克逊先生只有一个儿子。)分析简单地从定语从句和先行词之间有无逗号断开来判断，显然，这是一个非限制性定语从句。也就是说，如果缺少了这个非限制性定语从句，那么，主句的意思依然明确和完整，不会受影响。具体来说，这个非限制性定语从句所带给我们隐含的含义就是：Mr. Jackson只有一个儿子，这个儿子在澳大利亚读博士。所以，如果我们去掉原句当中的非限制性定语从句的话，即：Mr. Jacksons son came back home last week holiday stay，人们同样能够明白这个句子想要表达的主要含义，因为，只要提到“Mr. Jacksons son”，人们自然就知道其所指的是Mr. Jackson唯一的那个正在澳洲读博的儿子当然不会产生歧义。例13Mr. Jacksons son who is pursuing his doctoral studies in Australia came back home last week for holiday stay杰克逊先生那个正在澳大利亚读博士的儿子上周回家度假来了。(暗指：杰克逊先生可能有好几个儿子。)分析：简单地从定语从句和先行词之间有无逗号断开来判断，显然，这是一个限制性定语从句。也就是说：如果缺少了这个限制性定语从句，那么，主句的意思就不明确、不完整，会让人产生误解和歧义。具体来说，这个限制性定语从句所带给我们隐含的含义就是：Mr. Jackson可能有好几个儿子，而上周回家度假的是那个在澳大利亚读博士的儿子。所以，如果我们去掉原句当中的限制性定语从句的话，即：Mr.Jacksons son cameback home last week for holiday Stay，人们就不会明白这个句子想要表达的真正含义，因为，提到“Mr. Jacksonson”，人们就不一定知道其所指的是哪个儿子，但是，此句真正想要告诉我们的是Mr. Jackson的那个正在澳洲读博的儿子。显然，限制性定语从句是不能去掉的，它对于主句和中心词来说都是必不可少的否则，会让人产生歧义、误解。练习题：1. The commission acknowledged that neither vast amounts of money nor a large staff can ensure the safety of people who live in the vicinity of a nuclear plant, but it approved the installation because it believed that all reasonable precautions had been taken.分析：在主句的谓语动词acknowledge 之后所带的是一个由that 所引导的宾语从句，即：that neither vast amounts of money nor a large staff can ensure the safety of people who live in the vicinity of a nuclear plant,其中，该宾语从句中的宾语部分the safety of people又带有一个由who 所引导的定语从句who live in the vicinity of a nuclear plant 来修饰先行词people.译文：尽管该委员会承认数额巨大的钱和大量的I作人员都不能给生活在核电站附近的人以安全保障，但它还是批准了建造(核电站)，因为它相信一切可能的防范措施都已经被采用了。2. Evidence for this inconsistent level of performance comes from modern researches and practices which have shown that with skilled training and opportunity for development, people with intellectual disability have much greater potential for acquiring skills and for participation in community life than previously had been thought possible.分析其实，主句并不复杂，去掉次要内容后，主句的内容就剩下了：Evidence for this inconsistent level of performance （主语）comes from modern researches and practices（谓语）。真正让此句便得复杂的是介词宾语modern researches and practices 之后的定语从句，即：which have shown that with skilled training and opportunity for development, people with intellectual disability have much greater potential for acquiring skills and for participation in community life than previously had been thought possible.译文有关这种不连贯表现的证据来自于现代的研究和实践；这些研究和实践已经证明:有了技能培训和发展机遇，与人们以前的看法相比，患有智力障碍的人有更大的潜力来获得技能并参加社区生活。六、复合句必备知识点通过对雅思考试阅读部分的真题分析，我们不难发现让考生普遍感到头疼的绝大多数的难句、长句其实就是由多个单句组合而成的复合句，因此，在这里有必要先对英语中的句子结构和句型分类进行简单的介绍，以便考生能够更好地分析和理解雅思考试中的难句、长句。在英语句型当中，从句子的结构上来看，可以分为：简单句、复合句，其中复合句又可进一步细分为：并列复合句、主从复合句。例如：(1)简单句(Simple Sentences)：Gone with the Wind is a very touching English film.飘是一部非常感人的英文电影。(2)并列复合句(Compound Sentences)I got a deadly headache last month and then I was determined to quit smoking for good and all. 上个月我头疼得要命，那时候我下定了决心要永远戒烟。(3)主从复合句(Complex Sentences)：Because I got a deadly headache last month, I was determined to quit smoking for good and all.因为上个月我头疼得要命，所以就下定了决心要永远戒烟。对于主从复合句。我们又可以进一步将其细分为三类：状语从句(其中包括：时间状语从句、原因状语从句、地点状语从句、条件状语从句、比较或方式状语从句、目的状语从句、结果状语从句、让步状语从句)例1 Hardly had the university president entered the lecture hall than the performance began。(时间状语从句)大学校长刚进演讲大厅，表演就开始了。例2.Since you are free today，you might as well help her with her English writing.(原因状语从句)既然你今天闲着没事，你不妨帮帮她学习英语写作。例3.We Chinese students would like to go where the universities can offer students sufficient financial aids. (地点状语从句) 我们中国学生愿意上那些能给学生提供充足奖学资助的大学。例4.You may use my auto as long as you can return it to me before the coming Friday. (条件状语从句)如果你能在下礼拜五之前还给我的话，就可以用我的汽车。例5The more you practice, the better your reading comprehension will be。(比较或方式状语从句)你做的练习越多，你的阅读理解能力就会越好。例6I take，notes carefully in class so that l may use them when I go over my lessons after class。（目的状语从句)我在课堂上认真做笔记，以便能在课后用来复习功课。例7John is such a industrious student that every professor praises him in public。（结里狀语从句）John是一位非常勤奋的学生。每位教授都当众表扬他。例8.However much he tried, he failed to get the required total score of 7.0 in the IELTS test.(让步状从句)无论他怎么做，他的雅思总分都到不了要求达到的7分。(4) 定语从句(其中包括：限制性定语从句、非限制性定语从句)例1Anybody who attempts to reap profits at the expense 0I others will come to a bad end.(限制性定语从句)凡是有损人利己之心的人，其结局都不妙。例2We paid a visit to Professor Smith last weekend，who gave us a hearty welcome.(非限制性定语从句)上周末我们拜访了Smith教授，他热情地欢迎了我们。(5) 名词性从句(其中包括：主语从句、表语从句、宾语从句、同位语从句)。例1That Chinese student will come across hardship in applying for a student visa for the United Kingdom is certain. (主语从句) 中国学生申请去英国留学签证时遭遇一些艰辛是肯定无疑的。例2.The problem is who can have a day off to take care of the poor sick puppy tomorrow.(表语从句) 问题是明天谁能请一天假米照料可怜的小病狗。例3.if am pretty pleased that so many close friends will attend our tea party。(宾语从句)我非常高兴有这么多的好友将来参加我们的荼话会。例4Her delay of two hours is due to the fact that the plane met with a minor accident before taking off.（同位语从句)她耽搁了2个小时的原因是飞机在起飞前出了点小事故。练习题：1. For academics whose experience is primarily of study on-campus, there is some challenge in distance education, because the assumptions which underpin individualized learning may be quite different from those with which they are familiar.分析：这是一个因果关系的复合句。虽然从总体上来说其结构还比较清晰、易懂，但是由于在整个复合句中包含了3个定语从句，即：For academics(1)whose experience is primarily of study on-campus，there is some challenge in distance education，because the assumptions(2)which underpin individualized：learning may be quite different from those(3)with which they are familiar所以该句还是有一定的难度。建议考生在分析此类复合句的时候，最好先看懂整体上的句式结构，然后再逐级深层细分。正如在分析此句的时候，先要从总体上看出其结构是因果关系的复合句，即：“，because”，然后再对句子中“原因”和“结果”两个部分中所涉及到的细节(比如，其