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Unit 1 Production of DrugsDepending on their production or origin pharmaceutical agents can be split into three groups: I .Totally synthetic materials (synthetics)， .Natural products，and .Products from partial syntheses (semi-synthetic products).The emphasis of the present book is on the most important compounds of groups I and 一thus Drug synthesis. This does not mean，however，that natural products or other agents are less important. They can serve as valuable lead structures，and they are frequently needed as starting materials or as intermediates for important synthetic products.Table 1 gives an overview of the different methods for obtaining pharmaceutical agents.1单元生产的药品其生产或出身不同药剂可以分为三类：1。完全（合成纤维）合成材料，。天然产物，和。产品从（半合成产品）的部分合成。本书的重点是团体的最重要的化合物和一所以药物合成。这并不意味着，但是，天然产品或其他代理人并不太重要。它们可以作为有价值的领导结构，他们常常为原料，或作为重要的合成中间体产品的需要。表1给出了获取药剂的不同方法的概述。Table 1 Possibilities for the preparation of drugsMethods Examples1. Total synthesis -over 75 % of all pharmaceutical agents (synthetics)2. Isolation from natural sources (natural products): 2.1 Plants -alkaloids;enzymes;heart glycosides;polysaccharides;tocopherol; steroid precursors (diosgenin, sitosterin);citral (intermediate product for vitamins A, E，and K) 2.2 Animal organs一enzymes;peptide hormones;cholic acid from gall; insulin) from the pancreas;sera and vaccines 2. 3 Other sources一cholesterol from wool oils;L-amino acids from keratin and gelatine hydrolysates3. Fermentation一antibiotics;L-amino acids;dextran; targeted modifications on steroids， e.g. 11-hydroxylation; also insulin, interferon, antibodies, peptide hormones，enzymes，vaccines4. Partial synthetic modification of natural products (semisynthetic agents): 一alkaloid compounds;semisynthetic /3-lactam antibiotics;steroids;human insulin 表1对药物的可能性准备方法举例1。全合成，超过75的药剂（合成纤维）2。分离（天然产物）天然来源：2.1植物-生物碱;酶;心甙，多糖，维生素E;类固醇的前体（薯蓣皂素，sitosterin），柠檬醛（中间产品维生素A，E和K）2.2动物器官一酶;肽激素;胆酸从胆;胰岛素）从胰脏;血清和疫苗2。从角蛋白和明胶L -氨基酸;三一胆固醇从羊毛油脂的其他来源水解3。一抗生素发酵;L -氨基酸，葡聚糖，对类固醇有针对性的修改，例如11 -羟基化;也胰岛素，干扰素，抗体，肽激素，酶，疫苗4。部分合成修改（半合成剂）天然产品：一生物碱化合物;半合成/ 3-内酰胺类抗生素;类固醇;人胰岛素Several therapeutically significant natural products which were originally obtained from natural sources are today more effectively -i. e. more economically -prepared. by total synthesis. Such examples include L-amino acids，Chloramphenicol，Caffeine, Dopamine， Epinephrine，Levodopa, peptide hormones，Prostaglandins，D-Penicillamine，Vincamine， and practically all vitamins.其中几个重要的治疗作用最初是从天然产品天然来源获得更有效的今天，我。大肠杆菌更经济的准备.由全合成。这样的例子包括L-氨基酸，氯霉素，咖啡因，多巴胺，肾上腺素，左旋多巴，肽类激素，前列腺素，D -青霉胺，长春胺，以及几乎所有的维生素。Over the last few years fermentation - i. e. microbiological processes has become extremely important. Through modern technology and results from genetic selection leading to the creation of high performance mutants of microorganisms，fermentation has already become the method of choice for a wide range of substances. Both Eukaryonts (yeasts and moulds)and Prokaryonts(single bacterial cells，and actinomycetes)are used microorganisms. The following product types can be obtained: 1. cell material (single cell protein)， 2. enzymes， 3. primary degradation products (primary metabolites)，4. secondary degradation products (secondary metabolites).在过去的几年里发酵-岛大肠杆菌微生物过程变得极其重要。通过现代技术和基因选择的结果导致了突变体的微生物创造高性能，发酵，已成为首选方法各种各样的物质。这两个Eukaryonts（酵母菌和霉菌）和Prokaryonts（单细胞细菌，放线菌和）用于微生物。下列产品类型可以得到：1。细胞的物质（单细胞蛋白），2。酶，3。主要降解产物（主要代谢物），4。二级降解产物（次生代谢物）。 Disregarding the production of dextran from the mucous membranes of certain microorganisms，e. g. Leuconostoc mesenteroides，classes 2 and 3 are the relevant ones for the preparation of drugs. Dextran itself，with a molecular weight of 50,000 100,000，is used as a blood plasma substitute. Among the primary metabolites the L-amino acids from mutants of Corynebacterium glutamicum and Brevibacterium flavum are especially interesting. From these organisms some 350，000 tones of monosodium L-glutamate (food additive)and some 70，000 tones of L-lysine(supplement for vegetable proteins)are produced. Further important primary metabolites are the purina nucleotides，organic acids， lactic acid，citric acid，and vitamins，for example vitamin B,2 from Propionibacterium shermanii.Among the secondary metabolites the antibiotics must be mentioned first. The following five groups represent a yearly worldwide value of US-$17 billion:不顾来自某些微生物，大肠杆菌粘膜生产的葡聚糖克明串珠mesenteroides，2和3级是毒品有关的准备工作。葡聚糖本身5万10万分子量，是用作血浆代用品。其中主要来自谷氨酸棒杆菌代谢产物和黄色短杆菌突变体的L -氨基酸特别有趣。从这些味精约35万吨L -谷氨酸（食品添加剂）生物体和L -赖氨酸（用于植物蛋白补充）约70,000吨的生产。此外重要的初级代谢产物的普瑞纳核苷酸，有机酸，乳酸，柠檬酸和维生素，例如维生素B，从丙酸shermanii 2。其中次生代谢产物的抗生素必须首先提到。以下五组代表了美国每年170亿美元的全球价值： penicillins ( Penicillium chrysogenum )， cephalosporins ( Cephalosporium acremonium )， tetracyclines ( Streptomyces aureofaciens )， erythromycins ( Streptomyces erythreus )， aminoglycosides (e. g. streptomycin from Streptomyces griseus).青霉素（青霉）头孢菌素（头孢枝顶）四环素（金色链霉菌）erythromycins（链霉菌）氨基糖苷类（如链霉素从灰色链霉菌）。About 5000 antibiotics have already been isolated from microorganisms，but of these only somewhat fewer than 100 are in therapeutic use. It must be remembered，however，that many derivatives have been modified by partial synthesis for therapeutic use;some 50，000 agents have been semisynthetically obtained from户lactams alone in the last decade. Fermentations are carried out in stainless steel fermentors with volumes up to 400 m3. To avoid contamination of the microorganisms with phages etc. the whole process has to be performed under sterile conditions. Since the more important fermentations occur exclusively under aerobic conditions a good supply of oxygen or air(sterile)is needed. Carbon dioxide sources include carbohydrates，e. g. molasses，saccharides，and glucose. Additionally the microorganisms must be supplied in the growth medium with nitrogen-containing compounds such as ammonium sulfate，ammonia，or urea，as well as with inorganic phosphates. Furthermore，constant optimal pH and temperature are required. In the case of penicillin G， the fermentation is finished after 200 hours，and the cell mass is separated by filtration. The desired active agents are isolated from the filtrate by absorption or extraction processes. The cell mass，if not the desired product，can be further used as an animal feedstuff owing to its high protein content.关于5000抗生素已经分离出的微生物，但其中只有不到100有些治疗使用。必须记住，但是，许多衍生工具已被用于治疗使用部分合成修改;约50,000剂已被semisynthetically取得户内酰胺在过去十年孤独。发酵都是在不锈钢发酵罐出来的量高达400立方米。为了避免与噬菌体等微生物污染的全过程都必须在无菌条件下进行。由于更重要的发酵只发生在有氧条件下的氧气或空气好电源（无菌）是必要的。二氧化碳的来源包括碳水化合物，大肠杆菌克糖蜜，糖和葡萄糖。另外必须提供的微生物在与含氮如硫酸铵，氨水或尿素化合物生长介质，以及与无机磷酸盐。此外，不断最适pH和温度是必需的。在青霉素G的情况下，发酵完成200小时后，细胞的质量是由过滤分离。所需的活性剂是隔离的滤液吸收或提取工艺。大规模的细胞，如果不理想的产品，可进一步用作动物，由于其蛋白质含量高的饲料。 By modern recombinant techniques microorganisms have been obtained which also allow production of peptides which were not encoded in the original genes. Modified E. coli bacteria make it thus possible to produce A- and B- chains of human insulin or proinsulin analogs. The disulfide bridges are formed selectively after isolation，and the final purification is effected by chromatographic procedures. In this way human insulin is obtained totally independently from any pancreatic material taken from animals. Other important peptides，hormones，and enzymes，such as human growth hormone (HGH)，neuroactive peptides，somatostatin，interferons，tissue plasminogen activator (TPA)，lymphokines，calcium regulators like calmodulin，protein vaccines，as well as monoclonal antibodies used as diagnostics，are synthesized in this way. 利用现代微生物重组技术已获得这也让其中不是在原来的基因编码多肽的生产。改性大肠杆菌从而使可能产生A型和B -人胰岛素或胰岛素原类似物链。二硫键形成的选择性分离后，最终由色谱净化工序的影响。通过这种方式获得的人类胰岛素完全独立采取任何从动物胰腺材料。其他重要肽，激素和酶，如人类生长激素（hGH），神经活性肽，生长抑素，干扰素，组织型纤溶酶原激活物（tPA），淋巴因子，如钙调节钙调蛋白，蛋白疫苗，以及作为诊断用单克隆抗体是合成了这种方式。 The enzymes or enzymatic systems which are present in a single microorganism can be used for directed stereospecific and regiospecific chemical reactions. This principle is especially useful in steroid chemistry. Here we may refer only to the microbiological 11-a- hydro xylation of progesterone to 11-a-hydroxyprogesterone，a key product used in the synthesis of cortisone. Isolated enzymes are important today not only because of the technical importance of the enzymatic saccharification of starch，and the isomerization of glucose to fructose，They are also significant in the countless test procedures used in diagnosing illness，and in enzymatic analysis which is used in the monitoring of therapy.A number of enzymes are themselves used as active ingredients. Thus preparations containing proteases (e. g. chymotrypsin，pepsin，and trypsin)，amylases and lipases， mostly in combination with synthetic antacids，promote digestion. Streptokinase and urokinase are important in thrombolytics，and asparaginase is used as a cytostatic agent in the treatment of leukemia.这些酶或微生物在一个单一的酶系统，目前可用于立体定向和regiospecific化学反应。这个原则是有用的，尤其是在化学类固醇。在这里，我们只能引用的微生物十一水电黄体酮xylation至11人羟，一个关键的产品在可的松合成。隔离酶是重要的，不仅因为淀粉的酶法糖化技术重要性的今天，和葡萄糖异构果糖，他们也都在无数次试验在诊断疾病所用的程序显着，在酶的分析，在使用监测治疗。数量的酶本身作为活性成分。因此，含有蛋白酶制剂（如糜蛋白酶，胃蛋白酶和胰蛋白酶），淀粉酶和脂肪酶的合成主要是在与抗酸药相结合，促进消化。链激酶和尿激酶溶栓是重要的，是天冬酰胺酶在治疗白血病细胞生长剂。 Finally mention must be made of the important use of enzymes as biocatalystsin chemical reactions where their stereospecificity and selectivity can be used. Known examples are the enzymatic cleavage of racemates of N-acetyl-D，L-amino acids to give L-amino acids， the production of 8-aminopenicillanic acid from benzylpenicillin by means of penicillinamidase and the aspartase-catalysed stereospecific addition of ammonia to fumaric acid in order to produce L-aspartic acid.最后必须提到的，作为他们在那里biocatalystsin化学stereospecificity和选择性反应的酶可用于制造重要的用途。著名的例子是对N -乙酰- D，L -氨基酸消旋给予L -氨基酸酶裂解，从青霉素生产8 -氨基青霉烷酸的penicillinamidase手段和天冬氨酸酶，催化氨立体除了富马酸为了酸生产L -天门冬氨酸。In these applications the enzymes can be used in immobilized forms-somehow bound to carriers - and so used as heterogeneous catalysts. This is advantageous because they can then easily be separated from the reaction medium and recycled for further use. Another important process depending on the specific action of proteases is applied for the production of semisynthetic human insulin. This starts with pig insulin in which the alanine in the 30-position of the B-chain is replaced by a threonine tert-butyl ester by the selective action of trypsin. The insulin ester is separated，hydrolyzed to human insulin and finally purified by chromatographic procedures. Sources for enzymes include not only microorganisms but also vegetable and animal materials. 在这些酶可以在固定的形式使用的应用程序，在某种程度上势必运营商 - 等为异构催化剂。这是有利的，因为他们可以很容易地分离反应介质和回收再利用。另一个重要进程的具体行动蛋白酶是根据申请的半合成人胰岛素的生产。与猪胰岛素这将启动，其中在30的B链的位置被替换为丙氨酸苏氨酸叔丁基由胰蛋白酶选择性作用酯。胰岛素酯分离，水解为人体胰岛素和程序，最后由色谱纯化。对酶的来源不仅包括微生物，而且蔬菜和动物材料。In Table 1 it was already shown that over 75%of all pharmaceutical agents are obtained by total synthesis. Therefore knowledge of the synthetic routes is useful. Understanding also makes it possible to recognize contamination .of the agents by intermediates and by- products. For the reason of effective quality control the registration authorities in many countries demand as essentials for registration a thorough documentation on the production process. Knowledge of drug syntheses provides the R&D chemist with valuable stimulation as well. There are neither preferred structural classes for all pharmaceutically active compounds nor preferred reaction types. This implies that practically the whole field of organic and in part also organometallic chemistry is covered. Nevertheless，a larger number of starting materials and intermediates are more frequently used，and so it is useful to know the possibilities for their preparation from primary chemicals. For this reason it is appropriate somewhere in this book to illustrate a tree of especially important intermediates. These latter intermediates are the key compounds used in synthetic processes leading to an enormous number of agents. For the most part chemicals are involved which are produced in large amounts. In a similar way this is also true for the intermediates based on the industrial aromatic compounds toluene，phenol and chlorobenzene. Further key compounds may be shown in a table which can be useful in tracing cross-relationships in syntheses.fIn addition to the actual starting materials and intermediates solvents are required both as a reaction medium and ,for purification via recrystallization. Frequently used solvents are methanol，ethanol，isopropanol，butanol，acetone，ethyl acetate，benzene，toluene and xylene. To a lesser extent diethyl ether，tetrahydrofuran，glycol ethers，dimethylformamide (DMF) and dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO) are used in special reactions.在表1，已经显示，有超过75是由药剂全合成获得。因此，合成路线的知识是有用的。认识也使我们能够认识到污染。按中间体和副产品代理。为了有效的质量控制在许多国家的登记要领对生产过程的完整的文档要求登记机关的原因。药物合成知识提供了宝贵的刺激研发化学家以及。有没有首选的所有药学活性化合物，也反应类型结构类型的首选。这意味着几乎全部领域的有机和有机金属化学中的一部分也被覆盖。不过，也有较大的起始原料和中间体数量较常用，所以它是非常有用的知道他们准备从初级品的可能性。基于这个原因，它是在适当的地方，说明这本书的重要中间体，尤其是树。后面这些中间体领导到数目庞大的代理商合成工艺中的关键化合物。对于大多数的化学品是在涉及大量生产。以类似的方式，这也是对工业芳香族化合物甲苯，苯酚和氯苯中间体为基础的真实。另一个关键的化合物可能会显示在表格可在追踪syntheses.f交叉关系很有用除了实际的起始原料和中间体溶剂作为反应介质要求和通过再结晶纯化，两者。常用的溶剂是甲醇，乙醇，异丙醇，丁醇，丙酮，醋酸乙酯，苯，甲苯和二甲苯。在较小程度上乙醚，四氢呋喃，乙二醇醚，二甲基甲酰胺（DMF）和二甲基亚砜（DMSO）的使用在特殊的反应。 Reagents used in larger amounts are not only acids (hydrochloric acid，sulfuric acid， nitric acid，acetic acid) but also inorganic and organic bases (sodium hydroxide，potassium hydroxide，potassium carbonate，sodium bicarbonate，ammonia，triethylamine，pyridine). Further auxiliary chemicals include active charcoal and catalysts. All of these supplementary chemicals (like the intermediates) can be a source of impurities in the final product. In 1969 the WHO published a treatise on Safeguarding Quality in Drugs.Appendix 2 is concerned with the Proper Practice for Reparation and Safeguarding Quality in Drugs (WHO Technical Report No. 418，1969，Appendix 2;No. 567，1975，Appendix 1A). This has in the meantime become known as Good Manufacturing Practices or GMP rules，and these should now be obeyed in drug production. They form the basis for mutual recognition of quality certificates relating to the production of pharmaceuticals and for inspections of the production. facilities. 在较大的数额使用的试剂，不仅酸（盐酸，硫酸，硝酸，醋酸），而且无机和有机碱（氢氧化钠，氢氧化钾，碳酸钾，碳酸氢钠，氨，三乙胺，吡啶）。进一步的辅助化学品包括活性炭和催化剂。这些（如中间体）补充品都可以成为最终产品中杂质的来源。1969年，世界卫生组织发表了保障药品质量的论文中（WHO技术报告号418,1969，附录二，附录二是有关适当的做法的赔偿和保障药品质量。;号567,1975，附件1A）。这已成为在此期间为良好生产规范或GMP规则众所周知的，现在应在这些药品生产服从。它们构成的质量有关的药品生产证书互认的生产和检验的基础。设施。For a long time the US drug authority，the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)，has issued regulations for the preparation of drugs analogous to the WHO rules，and it applies these strictly. Exports of drugs to the USA，like those of finished products，require regular inspection of the production facilities by the FDA. 5 It may merely be noted here that such careful control applies not only to the products， but also to the raw materials (control of starting Materials)，and also to the intermediates. Clearly. the technical and hygienic equipment of the production and the storage areas have to fulfill set conditions. Since only a few compounds，such as acetylsalicylic acid，paracetamol and vitamins，are prepared in large amounts，most of the actual production takes place in multi-purpose (multi-product) facilities. .Special care has to be taken to avoid cross-contamination by other products what can be effected by good cleansing of used apparatus. A careful description and definition of all stored intermediates and products is needed.Selected -from H. J. Roth and A. Kleemann, Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Vol. 1，Drug Synthesis, Ellis Horwood Limited，England, 1988.长期以来，美国药品管理局，美国食品和药物管理局（FDA）已发出的药品制剂类似于谁的规则规定，而且适用于这些严格。向美国药物如成品者外，出口由FDA要求的生产设施进行定期检查。5它可能只是在此指出，这种严格控制不仅适用于产品，而且对原材料（原辅料控制），同时还以中间体。清楚。对生产和储存方面的技术和设备必须符合卫生规定的条件。由于只有少数的化合物，如乙酰水杨酸，对乙酰氨基酚和维生素，是在大量的准备，在实际生产中最需要的多用途（多产品）设施的地方。特别小心，注意避免交叉通过什么可以按所使用的仪器良好的清洁影响其他产品的污染。经过仔细的描述和所有储存的中间体和产品的定义是必要的。选择从黄建忠罗斯和A. Kleemann，药物化学，卷。1，药物合成，埃利斯霍伍德有限公司，英国，1988年。5单元 药物研发（I）1。简介药品开发是一个非常复杂的过程，需要一个协调和沟通不同功能之间的群体广泛很大。它是昂贵的，特别是在临床开发的后期阶段，在研究涉及的数百名病人。据估计，目前约2.3亿美元（1987美元）的新药开发成本，并采取介于7和10多年的临床前开发阶段开始，首先市场（不包括监管滞后）。药物开发是一项高风险业务，虽然利率不断上升，大约只有每十个新的化学研究在人类首次实体开展会不会成为一个产品。作为候选药物的进步，通过发展的失败降低风险hurdlesare克服前进的道路上。失败的典型原因包括不可接受的毒性，缺乏有效性，或不能提供比其他竞争产品的优点（图1）。损耗率的新化学实体（竞争性考试的）进入发展。平均只有约400 1000我在化合物合成进入发展。原因的罗富国教育学院的发展终止（不包括抗感染药）1：缺乏疗效2：药代动力学3：动物毒性4：杂项5：在人的不良影响6：商业上的原因图。1磨损率和终止的原因2。发展规划候选药物是否有可能提供有竞争力优势的评估首先需要强调的地方有一个产品的目标，目标产品或配置文件集。应特别注意支付给竞争者形成差异。这已成为55个，并与有限的处方，医疗费用，以及药物经济学（本章稍后讨论）日益重视更为关键。配置文件将确定一个目标指示（县），将候选药物开发以及诸如每日一次给药的目标，起效更快的行动，更好地侧比主要竞争对手效应特征。目标配置文件可以通过完善和发展为移动和候选药物的候选药物或竞争对手成为可用的新数据修改。合乎逻辑的下一个步骤是确定发展战略，例如，有适应症先发展，哪些国家向市场为目标的药物，然后确定要达到的核心监管机构的批准和商业成功的临床研究。本章将描述一个成功的新药开发所需的主要活动。所有这些活动，其中许多是相互依存，需要认真规划和协调。速度与高品质的数据收集到的市场是成功的关键。该活动确定的时间会去登记被称为项目管理方面，关键路径，路径。这是非常重要的计划和准备，并在研究开始监控和管理问题，以确保关键路径如期进行。增加经济压力和竞争强度，重要的是企业，探讨如何缩短这一关键路径。并行运行的活动，或重叠研究，这将通常按顺序运行，往往涉及的风险增加，节省时间，但分红可以使这种战略值得的。用于药物开发的一个新的关键路径通常贯穿初步合成的化合物，亚急性毒性研究，然后临床计划。图表显示了一个典型的候选药物的关键路径上的活动图所示。2。化学化学合成路线的选择试验厂，规模和稳定性测试制造工厂生产急性及亚急性毒理学毒理学长期和再现毒理学第一阶段会期临床阶段微光分析数据和报告相低压回顾监管意见书和临床试验申请更新准备提交管理局甲基丙烯酸/新药审批管理上市后Surverillance药物临床前，临床和商业配方发展和稳定的测试准备标签药物代谢动物药代动力学和操作ADME *健康人的人类患者活动可能是在关键路径上以粗体显示*吸收，分布，代谢，排泄图。2，在新药开发的主要过程以下各节突出了每个技术学科的目标和药物开发work.Activities活动中介绍了大致按时间顺序order.At任何一个时