语言学概论知识点概括.doc

Chapter1 介绍1.1.1Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of langueLinguistics studies not any particular language, but in studies of languages in general. It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. 1.1.2The scope of linguistics: 1. the study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics. 2. a number of relatively independent branches：phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics. 3. language and society are closely connected and the study of all the social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch called sociolinguistics.4. psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology.5. the study of the applications is generally known as applied linguistics.1.1.3Some important distinctions in linguistics: 1). prescriptive vs descriptive. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for”correct and standard” behaviour in using language and to tell people what they should say and should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.2) synchronic vs diachronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is a historical study.3) speech and writing: speech and writing are the two major media of communication.4) language and parole: the distinction between language and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F.de Saussure in the early 20th century. Langue and parole are French words. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. What linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole.5) competence and performance: similar to Saussures distinction between langue and parole is the distinction between competence and performance, which was proposed by the American linguist N.Chomsky in the late 1950. He defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language and performance, the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. While Saussures distinction and Chomskys are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of language is a matter of social convention and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.6) traditional grammar and modern linguistics. It is generally believed that the beginning of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F.de, Saussures book ”course in general linguistics ” in the early 20th sentury.7) some views: 1. linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary not the written. Traditional tended to emphsis the importance of written word.3.modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.1.2.1definitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication1.elements of language are combined according to rules 2.language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for primary medium for all language is sound.3 language is vocal because the primary medium for all language is sound.4 the term”human”in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific1.22Design features of language 1.Arbitrariness任意性(This means that there is no logical connection between meanings sound. i.e. different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.)2.productivity 能产性 有限的词汇能创造无限的句子(language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. Productivity is unique to human language)3.duality双层性 1，声音结构 2,， 表达意思(language is a system ,which consists of two sets of structures,or two levels.at the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by themselves.but the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words,which are found ar the higher level of the system.)4.displacement移位性 可以描述不在眼前的东西(language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present,real or imagined mattera in the past ,present ,or future,or in far away pleces.in other words ,language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.)5.cultural transmission文化传递性 语言风格被文化所影响(human capacity for language has a genetic basis)1.2.3Functions of language1,the descriptive function传达信息2,the expressive function表达情感 3,the social function社会功能，维系人际关系2,Six basic functions by Roman Jakobson: Addresser-emotive(I hate whatever they are planning for me)addressee-conative(Why not go and see another doctor?)context-referential(As far as I know ,the earths resources are being astonishingly wasted.)message-poetic(As poetry)contact-phatic communion(Hi !how are you this morning?)code-metalinguistic(Let me tell you what the word anorexia means.)3.M.A.K. Halliday three macrofunctions: the ideational 概念功能Is to organize the speaker or writers experience of the real or imaginary world. the interpersonal 人际功能Is to indicate ,establish ,or maintain social relationships between people.the textual语篇功能Is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.chapater2 Phonology音位学2.1 The phonic medium of languageLinguists are concerned only with those sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication. This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language语言的语音媒介, and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds2.2 Phonetics2.2.1 what is phonetics?Phonetics语音学 is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.Three branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics发音语音学，auditory phonetics听觉语音学，acoustic phonetics 声学语音学2.2.2 Organs of speechArticulatory apparatus发音部位：pharyngeal cavity咽腔，oral cavity口腔，nasal cavity鼻腔2.2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds语音正字法表征broad and narrow transcriptions宽式和严式标音International Phonetic Alphabet(IPA): standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcriptionBroad transcription: letter-symbols only. Narrow transcription: letter-symbols together with the diacritics(变音符)2.2.4 Classification of English speech sounds: vowels and consonants Classification of English consonantsManner of articulation发音方式分：stops闭塞音(p,btdkg) fricatives摩擦音(fvszh) affricates塞擦音(td)liquids流音(lr)nasals鼻音(mn )glides=semivowel(wj)Place of articulation发音部位分：bilabial双唇音(pbmw)labiodental唇齿音(fv)dental齿音()alveolar齿龈音(dsznlr)palatal腭音( tdj)velar软腭音(g )gottal喉音(h) Classification of English vowels舌头位置分：front central back；嘴巴张开程度分：close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels；嘴型分：unrounded, rounded；长短分：long, short；单元音：monophthongs双元音diphthongs2.3Phonology音位学2.3.1phonology音位学：有意义的音，位置和发音。Phonetics语音学：什么音怎么发。2.3.2Phone, phoneme, allophonePhone音素: phonetic unit or segment； Phoneme音位: phonological unit； Allophone音位变体: a phoneme in different phonetic environments例/t/-td,一个音位，两个音素.td为/t/的音位变体，属于同一个音位2.3.3Phonemic contrast音位对立complementary distribution互补分布minimal pair最小对立体Phonemic contrast：two distinctive phonemes(/p/b/ in pit and bit)complementary distribution同一个音位的音位变体形成minimal pair：two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment(pill and till)minimal set:最小对立集(beat bit bet bat boot but bait bite boat)2.3.4 Some rules in phonology Sequential rules(序列规则)：the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. Assimilation rule (同化规则)：the assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. (“impossible” instead of “inpossible” as the n sound is assimilated to m) Deletion rule (省略规则)：a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.(sign, design, paradigm, no sound ”g”)2.3.5 Suprasegmental features(超音段特征)-stress（重音），tone(声调)，intonation(语调)Suprasegmental features: the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments Stress: word stress and sentence stress名词重音在第一个音节，动词重音在第二个音节 Tone: tones are pitch variations which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.-level(阴平)，the second rise(阳平)， the third fall-rise(上声)，the fourth fall(去声) Intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall toneChapter3 Morphology形态学3.1. Introduction The term morphology refer to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.3.2. Open class and closed classNouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs make up the largest part of vocabulary which are called open class words. Conjunctions, preposition, articles and pronouns consist of the grammatical or functional words, which referred to as closed class words.3.3.morphemes the minimal units of meaning词素最小的意义单位The word as the smallest free form found in language.The morpheme the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function. A morpheme is neither a meaning nor a stretch of sound, but a meaning and a stretch of sound joined together.1) . Free and bound morphemes自由词素与黏着词素A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme, whereas a morpheme that must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.2) . Allomorphs 词素变位:The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.3.4. Analyzing word structures:Roots and affixes3.5. Derivational and inflectional morphemes派生词素与屈折词素 When derivational morphemes are conjoined to other morphemes, new words are derived,or formed.A morpheme can be defined as a minimal unite of meaning.Inflectional morphemes are bound morpheme which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on. They are attached to words or morphemes, but never change their syntactic category.3.6. Morphological rules of word formation. Morphological rules are called productive morphological rules and it may be productive or less productive.3.7. Derivation派生Derivation is an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning and/or category distinct from that of its bases. Sometimes derivation can apply more than once; it is possible to create multiple levels of word structure, but derivation is also subject to special constraints and restriction. A derivational affix attaches only to bases with particular phonological prosperities. 3.8. Compounds 复合词:Compounds is stringing words together.a.When two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category.b.In many cases, the two words fall into different categories. Then the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound. But compounds with a preposition are in c.the category of the non-prepositional part of the compound.例：undertake inaction uplift d.Compound have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequencef.The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts. 4.1 What is syntax?Syntax(句法学) is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.4.2 Categories(范畴)Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories. (句法范畴)Noun（N）-Determiner(Det)-the, a, this, those; Verb（V）-Degree words(Deg)-quite, very, more, so; Adjective（A）-Qualifier(Qual)-often, always, seldom; Preposition（P）- Auxiliary(Aux)-must, should, can, might; Conjunction (Con)-and, but, orSyntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases(短语)most comment phrasal categoriesNoun phrase (NP):the pretty girl; Verb phrase (VP): often dream; Adjective phrase (AP): very impressive; Prepositional phrase (PP):mainly aboutPhrases are formed of head (主干)，specifier (标志语)，complement（补语）主干左边的是标志语，右边的是补语。4.3 Phrase structure rule(短语结构规则)Special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.NP（Det）N（PP）; VP（Qual）V（NP）;AP（Deg）A（PP）;PP（Deg）P（NP）The arrow can be read as “consists of ” or “branches into”.XP rule: The XP rule（specifier）X(complement)Coordination rule并列规则:Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, or.1.no number limit 2. A category at any level can be coordinated, 3. Coordinated categories must be of the same type. 4. The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.4.4 phrase elements 短语元素4.4.1 specifiers Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles.In English specifiers occur at the left boundary of their respective phrases.If the heads are Ns, the specifiers are determiners. If the heads are Vs, qualifiers. If the heads are As or Ps, degree words.Specifiers HeadsExamplesDeterminerNThe tree, this book, no waterQualifierVAlways fail, never believeDegree wordAQuite good, very sensitivePAlmost in, quite above4.4.2 complementsComplements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English. The information about a words complement is included in the head and termed subcategorization. 次节制化4.4.3 modifiers 修饰语 Modifiers specifies optionally expressible properties of the heads.ModifierPositionExampleAPPrecedes the headA very careful girlPPFollows the headOpen with careAdvPPrecedes of follows the headRead carefully, carefully read5.1Semantics(语义学) can be simply defined as the study of meaning.5.2.1The naming theory（命名论） (proposed by Greek scholar Plato): the words used in a language are simply labels for the objects they stand for. Limitations: nouns only (excluding the things not existing the real world and physical objects, but abstract notions)5.2.2The conceptualism view(概念论): in the interpretation of meaning, the link between a linguistic form and what it refers to are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Semantic triangle(语义三角) or triangle of significance（意义三角）5.2.3Contextualism(语境论)：one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable context. A representative of the approach-J.R.Firth, he is influenced by Malinowski and Wittgenstein. Two kinds of context are organized: the situational context（情景语境）and the linguistic context(语言语境)5.2.4Behaviorism: define the meaning of a language form of as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”. It is close to contextualism, linked with psychological interest.5.3.Lexical meaning(词汇意义)5.3.1 sense and reference(意义和指称)Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized.Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5.3.2 Major sense relations synonymy(同义现象)： the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms(同义词)1）Dialectal synonyms（方言同义词）-synonyms used in different regional dialects。（autumn&fall; lift&elevator）2)Stylistic synonyms(文体同义词)-synonyms differing in style（kid, child, offspring）3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning (collaborator, accomplice)4) Collocational synonyms(搭配同义词) （accuse of，charge with, rebuke for）5) Semantically different synonyms(语义不同的同义词)（amaze，astound） Polysemy(多义现象) （table） Homonymy(同音异义) Homophones(同音异义)：night/knight，piece/peace Homographs(同形异义)：bow/bow tear/tear Complete homonyms: fast adj /fast v scale n/scale v Hyponymy(上下义关系)：refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.Superordinate: the word which is more general in meaning. Hyponyms: the more specific words. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. Antonymy (反义关系)Antonyms : words that are opposite in meaning1Gradable antonyms( 等级反义词) （middle-aged, mature, elder）2Complementary antonyms (互补反义词)（male, female）3Relational opposites(关系反义词) （husband，wife）5.4 Sense relations between sentences1) X is synonymous with Y 2) X is inconsistent with Y 3) X entails Y( Y is an entailment of X) 4) X presupposes Y. (Y is a prerequisite of X) 5) X is a contradiction.(句子内部) 6) X is semantically anomalous. 8.1.1 the relatedness between langu