英语学习知识.ppt

Chapter3 MakingCorrectandEffectiveSentence Part1 CorrectSentenceAllkindsofwritingaremadeupofsentence Soitisnecessaryforustolearnhowtowritecorrectandgoodsentence Thereareatleasttheserequirements 1 Itshouldbestructurallycomplete 2 Itshouldbeginwithacapitalletter 3 Itshouldendwithafullstop oraquestionmark oranexclamationmark 4 Itshouldexpressasinglecompleteidea 1 CompletenessinStructureTherequirementsofcompletenessinstructureareasfollow 1 Eachsentencehasasubjectandapredicateword 2 Andalsobeginswithacapitalletterandendswithafullstop Forexample Shecame Johnisagoodcarpenter Thestudentusethesedictionarieseveryday Hedidn tknowwhathadhappenedandwasgoingtoaskMr Smith whowasusuallywellinformed Andhereareafewincorrectsentences Howtooperatethiscomputer Havelostmykey Becausehehadn tfinishedhisassignment sohecontinuedworkingintheclassroom Theoldmanreturninghomeaftereightyears absencetofindthatalltheneighborshehadknownwerenolongerthere Howdouoperatethiscomputer Ihavelostmykey Hehadn tfinishedhisassignment sohecontinuedworkingintheclassroom Hecontinuedworkingintheclassroom becausehehadn tfinishedhisassignment Theoldmanreturnedhomeaftereightyears absencetofindthatalltheneighborshehadknownwerenolongerthere 2 TherightsubjectTakealookatafewwrongsentenceshere Onenteringtheclassroom thestudentsstoodupandsaid GoodMorning Afterfinishinghercomposition thetranslationexercisewastakenup Hurryingtotheconferenceroom noonewasthere Returninghomeafterwork supperwaswaitingforhiminthekitchen Tolookatamap theimportanceofthisnewrailwaywillbeseen Inthesefivesentencesthesubjectsarenotproperlyrelatedtogerund participles orinfinitiveinthefirstpartsofthesentences Sotheyarethewrongsubjects Onenteringtheclassroom theteacherwasgreetedbythestudents whostoodupandsaid GoodMorning Afterfinishinghercomposition shetookupthetranslationexercise Hurryingtotheconferenceroom shesawnobodywasthere Returninghomeafterwork hesawsupperwaswaitingforhiminthekitchen Youhaveonlytolookatamaptoseetheimportanceofthisnewrailway Allthesesentencesshowthatthesubjectofasentenceshouldbeproperlyrelatedtothenonfiniteverbsbeforeit 3 AgreementBetweentheSubjectandthePredicateVerbWeallknowthesimplerulethatthepredicateverbofasentencehastoagreewiththesubjectinpersonandnumber suchasathird personsingularsubjecttakesapredicateverbwith siftheverbisinthepresenttense Theremaybeproblemswhenthenumberofthesubjectisnoteasytodetermine Firstofall let stakealookat collectivenouns 集合名词 英语 Collectivenoun 是语言学上的一个专有名词 意指一种可用来指称一群对象的字 而这些对象 可以是人 动物 或是一群概念等事物集合名词分为以下几类 并分别简述其有关用法特点 第一类形式为单数 但意义可以用为单数或复数这类集合名词包括family 家庭 team 队 class 班 audience 听众 等 其用法特点为 若视为整体 表示单数意义 若考虑其个体成员 表示复数意义 比较 Hisfamilyislarge 他的家是个大家庭 Hisfamilyareallwaitingforhim 他的一家人都在等他 Thisclassconsistsof45pupils 这个班由45个学生组成 ThisclassarereadingEnglishnow 这个班的学生在读英语 第二类形式为单数 但意义永远为复数这类集合名词包括cattle 牛 牲畜 people 人 police 警察 等 其用法特点为 只有单数形式 但却表示复数意义 用作主语时谓语用复数 不与a an 连用 但可与the连用 如 Peoplewilllaughatyou Thepolicearelookingforhim 警察在找他 Manycattlewerekilledforthis 就因为这个原因宰了不少牲畜 注 表示牲畜的头数 用单位词head 单复数同形 如 fiveheadofcattle5头牛 fifty headof cattle50头牛 第三类形式为复数 意义也为复数这类集合名词包括goods 货物 clothes 衣服 等 其用法特点是 只有复数形式 用作主语时谓语也用复数 但通常不与数词连用 如 Clothesdryslowlyintherainyseason 衣服在雨季不易干 Suchclothesareveryexpensive 那样的衣服很贵 Ifgoodsarenotwellmadeyoushouldcomplaintothemanufacturer 如果货物质量不好 则理应向制造商提出控诉 第四类形式为单数 意义也为单数这类集合名词包括baggage luggage 行李 clothing 衣服 furniture 家具 machinery 机器 poetry 诗 scenery 风景 jewelry 珠宝 equipment 设备 等 其用法特点为 是不可数名词 只用单数形式 不用不定冠词 当然更不能用数词 没有复数形式 如 Ourclothingprotectsusfrom against thecold 我们的衣服可以御寒 Haveyoucheckedallyourbaggage 你所有的行李都托运了吗 Thethiefstoleallherjewelry 小偷把她所有的首饰都偷走了 Thehospitalhasnodecentequipment 这家医院没有像样的设备 TheTangDynastyisthoughtofasthehighsummerofChinesepoetry 人们认为唐朝是中国诗歌的全盛时期 注 machinery poetry jewelry scenery等相应的个体可数名词是machine poem jewel scene等 如 apoem apieceofpoetry一首诗manymachines muchmachinery manypiecesofmachinery许多机器 Takealookatthefollowingsentences Hewholefamilyis arewaitingforhim Themajorityofthestudentstakingthisexamis aregirls Thesecattlebelong belongstothatranch Thereis areanenormousaudienceinthehall Theaudiencewas wereshockedbythescenesofviolenceinthefilm Thereis arealotofimportantnewsintoday snewspaper Mathematicsis areextremelyinterestingtohim Allthepeopleintheroomis areenjoyinghisfunnystories Thepolicehas havebegunmakinginquiriesaboutthecase ThenumberofPhDdegreeholdersamongtheteachingstaffoftheschoolis areverysmall AnumberofPhDdegreeholdersareteachingatthisuniversity Secondly let sstudy proximity 就近原则 就近原则 也称 邻近原则 就近一致原则 即 谓语与靠近的名词 代词 有时不一定是主语 在 人称 数 上一致 I 在正式文体中 1 由下列词语连接的并列主语 therebe 句型 or either or nor neither nor whether or not but notonly butalso 等 如下 Whathedoesorwhathesaysdoesnotconcernme 他的行为或言谈都与我无关 NeitheryounorIamwrong 你和我都没错 Notyoubutyourfatheristoblame 不是你 而是你父亲该受责备 Notonlyyoubut also heiswrong 不仅你错了 他也错了 2 在倒装句中 谓语可与后面第一个主语一致 e g Inthedistancewasheardtheclappingofhandsandtheshoutsofthepeople 在远处 能听见鼓掌声和人们的呼喊声 Thereis are apenandsomebooksonthedesk 桌上有一支钢笔和几本书 就远原则谓语动词与前面主语一致代表词汇 aswellas together along with ratherthan except besides but including inadditionto apartfrom如下 HeratherthanIisright Nobodybuttwostudentsisintheclassroom Takealookatthefollowingsentences Thereis areanoldworkerandthreeyoungmendoingthejobtoday EitheryouorIare amtotakeupthework John togetherwithtwoassistants is arerepairingthemachine BesidesSmith Williamis aregoingtospeakatthemeeting Andfinally weshouldknowthatasubjectclausegenerallytakesasingularverb butawhat clausewhichclearlyreferstomanythingscantakeapluralverb Thefollowingaresomeexamples WhereIcanputallthesebooksis areaproblem WhatIwantis areonlythreemealsaday Whatshehasboughtareatlasesandmapsofvariouscountries 4 AgreementBetweenPronounandAntecedentJustasthepredicateverbofasentencehastoagreewiththesubjectinpersonandnumber soapronounhastoagreewithitsantecedent Takealookatthefollowingexamples Theownerandthecaptainrefusedtoleavetheirdistressedship Theownerandthecaptainrefusedtoleavehisdistressedship Inthefirstsentence theownerandthecaptainaretwodifferentpersons sothereisused Inthesecondone thepronounhistellsusthattheowneroftheshipisalsoitscaptain Afteracompoundantecedentwithor either or nor neither nor whether or not but notonly butalso apronounagreeswiththenearerpartoftheantecedent Examples NeithertheCEOnorhisassistantwasinhisoffice NeithertheCEOnorhisassistantswereintheiroffice Forsuchsingularantecedentsaseach either neither one onone everyone someone anyone nobody everybody somebody andanybody whichmayrefertobothmaleandfemale sheorhe hisorher himorher orthepreferredpluralpronounsthey theirorthemareused Example Everybodyshouldreturnthebookstheyborrowedwithinaweek 5 ClearPronounReferenceFirstly Personalpronounsshouldbeusedwithcare Hereareafewsentencesinwhichthepronounsdonothaveclearreference I mgoingtothetalkonjazzmusicforheisawell knowncomposer Leaveoutthewordinthatsentencebecauseitistoodifficult Shetoldmysisterthatherideawaspracticable Inthefirstsentencethepronounhehasnoantecedent becausenopersonhasbeenmentioned So itwillbeclearifweusethenounthespeakerinsteadofthepronounhe Seeasfollow I mgoingtothetalkonjazzmusicforthespeakerisawell knowncomposer Inthesecondsentencetherearetwonounsbeforethepronounit andthereaderisnotsurewhichistoodifficult thewordorthesentence Sowecanputitinthesetwoways Leaveoutthewordbecauseitistoodifficult Leaveoutthewordbecausewithitthesentencewouldbetoodifficult Inthethirdsentence twowomenarementioned sheandmysister Thismakesthereferenceofherunclear Eitherherownormysister scanbeused Shetoldmysisterthatherownideawaspracticable Shetoldmysisterthatmysister sideawaspracticable Secondly Relativepronounsshouldalsobeusedcarefully Weshouldavoidmakingsentenceslikethefollowing Sheputmanytoysintoherbag whichshewastogivetothechildreninthekindergarten HeisthemanrecommendedbyMr Smithwhoknowshowtofixcars Inthefirstsentencethewordbagseemstobetheantecedentofwhichasitisclosetotherelativepronoun buttherealantecedentshouldbetoys InthesecondsentencewhomaystandforeitherMr Smithortheman Theambiguityinthesetwosentencesmayberemovedinthefollowingway Sheputintoherbagmanytoys whichshewastogivetothechildreninthekindergarten HehasbeenrecommendedbyMr Smithasamanwhoknowshowtofixcars Or Mr Smith whoknowshowtofixcars hasrecommendedhim Inshort whenweusepersonalandrelativepronouns weshouldmakesurethattheirreferenceisclear 6 EndingSentenceswithFullStops P52 7 JoiningClauseswithConjunctionsWhentwoormoresentencesarecloselyconnectedinmeaning itmaybebettertoputthemintoonesentencethanseparatethem Thenthosesentenceswillbecomeclauseswhichshouldbejoinedtogetherwithproperconjunctionsorotherwords likerelativepronouns Forexamples WhenIsetoutforthebiggestbookstoreintown Isawattheschoolgateagirlofmyclass Shewasalsogoingthere sowedecidedtogotogether Wewalked forthebookstorewasnotfaraway Besides weshouldlearntodistinguishbetweenconjunctionsandadverbs suchasbutandhowever Soandtherefore Wecanjoincoordinateclauseswithacommaandaconjunction orwithasemicolon orwithasemicolonandanadverb Forexamples Sheenjoyslisteningtopopmusic buthersisterdoesn t Sheenjoyslisteningtopopmusic however hersisterdoesn t ShespeaksEnglishfluently moreover shespeaksFrenchquitewell Theplansforthebuildingarenotyetready thereforetheconstructioncannotstartverysoon 8 AMainclauseinaComplexSentenceInacomplexsentencetheremustbeamainclause whetheritisatthebeginning inthemiddleoratthe endofthesentence Forexamples Hewouldcometoseemewheneverhewasinthiscity Whensheheardtheexplosion shecalledmeimmediatelytoaskwhathadhappened Becausehehadnotheardaboutthatimportantdecision Whateverthedirectorsaidattheconference Wecanseethatthelasttwosentencesarenotcompletebecausetheyareadverbial subjectclauses whilethemainclausesaremissing 9 ProperUseofComparisonsAdjectivesoradverbsofthecomparativedegree shouldbeusedonlywhenthereisacomparison Theyarerightlyusedinthefollowingsentence Hislatestnovelismoreinterestingthanallhisearlierworks Shespeaksbetterthanshewrites Hetalksmorethanhedoes Sometimesacomparisonisimplied Mostofhispoemsaredifficulttounderstand Thisoneisnoteasier However weshouldnotuseadjoradvcomparativedegreewhenthereisnocomparison explicitorimplied likethefollowing Heisabetterstudent Thetextiseasier Inaddition weshouldrememberthatonlythingsofthesamekindcanbecompared Thefollowingcomparisonsarenotlogical HerEnglishisbetterthanI ThelanguageofHenryismoreelaboratethanHemingway So wecanputitinthisway HerEnglishisbetterthanmine ThelanguageofHenryismoreelaboratethanthatofHemingway 10 CorrectUseoftheTensesSinceapredicateverbmustbeusedinacertaintense weshouldlearntousethetensescorrectly Tensestelltheactionoftheverbtakesplace 1 SimplePastTense 过去时Whenwetalkaboutsthhappenedinthepast evenafewminutesago weshouldusethesimplepasttense Forexample Iwenttothebookexhibitionyesterday 2 PresentPerfect现在完成时Whenwetalkaboutsththathappenedinthepast butitsresultremainsatpresent weshouldusethepresentperfect Forexample Ihavebeentothebookexhibition 比较过去时与现在完成时1 过去时表示过去某时发生的动作或单纯叙述过去的事情 强调动作 现在完成时为过去发生的 强调过去的事情对现在的影响 强调的是影响 2 过去时常与具体的时间状语连用 而现在完成时通常与模糊的时间状语连用 或无时间状语 举例 Isawthisfilmyesterday 强调看的动作发生过了 Ihaveseenthisfilm 强调对现在的影响 电影的内容已经知道了 ShehasreturnedfromParis 她已从巴黎回来了 Shereturnedyesterday 她是昨天回来了 Inthefollowingsentencestherearetensemistakes Wehaverevisedourworkplanlastnight Theychangedtheirtimetableandtheyareworkingaccordingtoit Thisishislatestnovel Didyoureadit WearegoingtotheGreatWall Didyouevergothere Thecorrectonesareasfollowing Werevisedourworkplanlastnight Theyhavechangedtheirtimetableandtheyareworkingaccordingtoit Thisishislatestnovel Haveyoureadit WearegoingtotheGreatWall Haveyouevergothere 3 PastPerfectTense过去完成时1概念 表示过去的过去 其构成是had 过去分词构成 2用法a 在told said knew heard thought等动词后的宾语从句 Shesaid that shehadneverbeentoParis b 状语从句在过去不同时间发生的两个动作中 发生在先 用过去完成时 发生在后 用一般过去时 Whenthepolicearrived thethieveshadrunaway c 表示意向的动词 如hope wish expect think intend mean suppose等 用过去完成时表示 原本 未能 Wehadhopedthatyouwouldcome butyoudidn t 3过去完成时的时间状语before by until when after once assoonas HesaidthathehadlearnedsomeEnglishbefore Bythetimehewastwelve Edisonhadbegantomakealivingbyhimself Tomwasdisappointedthatmostoftheguestshadleftwhenhearrivedattheparty 4 PresentPerfectContinuous现在完成进行时1 表示从过去某时开始一直持续到现在的动作 并且还将持续下去 2 表示在说话时刻之前到现在正在进行的动作 基本表达式 Ihavebeendoing 一 表示从过去某时开始一直持续到现在的动作 并且还将持续下去 TheChinesehavebeenmakingpaperfortwothousandyears 中国有2000年的造纸历史 动作还将继续下去 IhavebeenlearningEnglishsincethreeyearsago 自从三年前以来我一直在学英语 动作还将继续下去 二 表示在说话时刻之前到现在正在进行的动作 Wehavebeenwaitingforyouforhalfanhour 我们已经等你半个钟头了 人还没到 如同在电话里说的 还会继续等 Part2 CoordinationandSubordinationWhenwementiontwoormorethingsorideasofequalimportance weoftenusecoordinateclausesjoinedwithacoordinatingconjunction and but or nor yet so for Thisformormethodiscalledcoordination Whenweexpressanimportantideainamainclauseandoneormorelessimportantideasinsubordinateclauses weareusingthemethodofsubordination Itisclearthatthechoiceofcoordinationorsubordinationismainlydecidedbytherelationshipbetweentheideastobeexpressed Ineachofthefollowingsentencesmorethanonefactorideaismentioned Letusseewhethercoordinationispreferabletosubordinationortheotherwayround ThisrichmanwenttochurcheverySunday andheneverdonatedacentforthebenefitofhisneighborhood ThisrichmanwenttochurcheverySunday butheneverdonatedacentforthebenefitofhisneighborhood AlthoughthisrichmanwenttochurcheverySunday heneverdonatedacentforthebenefitofhisneighborhood Whenwecomparethesesentences wefeelthatthesecond withbut isstrongerthanthefirst andthethirdmaybethebestone fortherethemainideais expressedinthemainclauseandisemphasized Althoughhewentontalkingasifhewouldneverstop noonewaslisteningtohim Hewentontalkingasifhewouldneverstop butnoonewaslisteningtohim Hetalkedandtalked anditseemedthathewouldneverstop butnoonewaslisteningtohim Herecoordinationmaybebetterthansubordination forinacompoundsentenceallthethreeideasgetequalemphasis Part3 EffectiveSentencesAcorrectsentencemaynotexpresstheideaitintendstoexpressveryclearlyorforcefully Correctnessalonecannotmakeagoodsentence Ithastobeeffectiveat thesametime Effectivesentenceshavesomeorallofthefollowingqualities unity coherence conciseness emphasis andvariety 1 UnityUnityreferstwoqualities thereisonlyonemainideainasentence andthatideaiscomplete Thisdoesnotmeanthatallsentencehavetobeshortandsimple Itisoftennecessarytowritealongsentencewithmanypartsinit Suchasentenceexpressesacentralideasupportedormodifiedbyvarioussubordinateideas ortwoormorerelatedparallelideas Inotherwords ideasthatarecloselyconnectedcanbeexpressedinonesentence whileideasthatarenotcloselyconnectedshouldnotbeputintoonesentence Takealookatthefollowingsentences TheexplorerwhohasjustreturnedfromAntarcticisbusywritingreportsonhisadventuresonthatice coveredcontinent wherehedidnotseeanyanimalsexceptpenguins Thisisalongsentencewithmanyparts includingtwoclauses Ithasonecentralidea TheexplorerisbusywritingreportsonhisadventuresintheAntarctic andalltheotherideasarerelatedtothiscentralidea BorninSichuanProvince helaterbecameafamouswriter Thisisacorrectbutnotagoodsentence becausethetwofactsmentionedinitarenotlogicallyconnected amanborninSichuanisnotcertaintobecomeafamouswriter Tomakethemeaningclear wehaveto saysomethingabouthiseducationandworkexperiencethathelpedtomakehimafamouswriter DreamoftheRedMansionsisthebest knownnovel Thisseemstobeacorrectsentence butitsmeaningisnotcomplete Thebest knownnovelshouldhavebeenmodified Wecanputitinthethisway DreamoftheRedMansionsisthebest knownclassicalChinesenovel 2 CoherenceCoherencemeansclearandcorrectarrangementofthepartsofasentence SincethemeaningofEnglishsentencesmainlydependsonwordorder thearrangementofthepartsofasentenceisveryimportanttoaccurateexpressionofideas Hereareafewruleswhichmayhelptopreventincoherent Donotseparatewordsthatarecloselyrelatedunlessitisnecessary DonotuseapronounwithambiguousreferenceDonotuseadanglingmodifierorputamodifierfarfromtheworditmodifiesDonotmakeunnecessaryorconfusingshiftsinpersonornumberDonotmakeunnecessarychangesinthevoice tenseormoodofverbsDonotusedifferentformstoexpressparallelideas Takealookatthefollow