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Module 2 Developing and Developed CountriesPeriod 2 GrammarLink wordsGoals To learn about link words and sentence cohesionProceduresStep 1: Learning about cohesionTo achieve cohesion, the link of one sentence to the next, consider the following techniques: Repetition. In sentence B (the second of any two sentences), repeat a word from sentence A. Synonymy. If direct repetition is too obvious, use a synonym of the word you wish to repeat. This strategy is call elegant variation. Antonymy. Using the opposite word, an antonym, can also create sentence cohesion, since in language antonyms actually share more elements of meaning than you might imagine. Pro-forms. Use a pronoun, pro-verb, or another pro-form to make explicit reference back to a form mentioned earlier. Collocation. Use a commonly paired or expected or highly probable word to connect one sentence to another. Enumeration. Use overt markers of sequence to highlight the connection between ideas. This system has many advantages: (a) it can link ideas that are otherwise completely unconnected, (b) it looks formal and distinctive, and (c) it promotes a second method of sentence cohesion, discussed in (7) below. Parallelism. Repeat a sentence structure. This technique is the oldest, most overlooked, but probably the most elegant method of creating cohesion.Transitions. Use a conjunction or conjunctive adverb to link sentences with particular logical relationships. a. Identity. Indicates sameness. that is, that is to say, in other words, .b. Opposition. Indicates a contrast. but, yet, however, nevertheless, still, though, although, whereas, in contrast, rather, .c. Addition. Indicates continuation. and, too, also, furthermore, moreover, in addition, besides, in the same way, again, another, similarly, a similar, the same, . d. Cause and effect. therefore, so, consequently, as a consequence, thus, as a result, hence, it follows that, because, since, for, . e. Indefinites. Indicates a logical connection of an unspecified type. in fact, indeed, now, .f. Concession. Indicates a willingness to consider the other side.admittedly, I admit, true, I grant, of course, naturally, some believe, some people believe, it has been claimed that, once it was believed, there are those who would say, .g. Exemplification. Indicates a shift from a more general or abstract idea to a more specific or concrete idea. for example, for instance, after all, an illustration of, even, indeed, in fact, it is true, of course, specifically, to be specific, that is, to illustrate, truly, .Step 2: Summing up transitional devices (Linking words)Here is a list of some common transitional devices that can be used to cue your reader in a given way.To Add:and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore, nor, too, next, lastly, whats more, moreover, in addition, first (second, etc.),To Compare:whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, up against, balanced against, vis a vis, but, although, conversely, meanwhile, after all, in contrast, although this may be trueTo Prove:because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, furthermore, moreover, besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any case, that isTo Show Exception:yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, of course, once in a while, sometimesTo Show Time:immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few hours, finally, then, later, previously, formerly, first (second, etc.), next, and thenTo Repeat:in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been notedTo Emphasize:definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, in any case, absolutely, positively, naturally, surprisingly, always, forever, perennially, eternally, never, emphatically, unquestionably, without a doubt, certainly, undeniably, without reservationTo Show Sequence:first, second, third, and so forth. A, B, C, and so forth. next, then, following this, at this time, now, at this point, after, afterward, subsequently, finally, consequently, previously, before this, simultaneously, concurrently, thus, therefore, hence, next, and then, soonTo Give an Example:for example, for instance, in this case, in another case, on this occasion, in this situation, take the case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an illustration, to illustrateTo Summarize or Conclude:in brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude, in conclusion, as I have shown, as I have said, hence, therefore, accordingly, thus, as a result, consequently, on the wholeStep 3: Learning to use “however” correctlyThere are two acceptable ways of using “however”. 1. As a modifier of a sub-clause: It will probably fall off, however you tie the bow.In this case, “however” is the equivalent of in whatever way. 2. At the beginning or near the start of a new sentence that contradicts the previous one. Note it always begins a complete new sentence and in this sense it is the equivalent of But: They were famed for their achievements. It was, however, achieved through hard work.3. It is ungrammatical to use the construction of no. above without the full stop, as in these two examples: Slaves were a stable part of Roman society; however we should be cautious in our evaluation of the sources.“But” could have been used here (either at the start of a new sentence or continuing the sentence):Slaves could exercise a degree of freedom however they were expected to follow the religion of their masters.“Although” would have been acceptable here. If the word “however” is used in cases like these, there should be a full stop before it and a comma after it.Step 4: 连词用法一览表 种类功用例句并列连词 连接具有并列关系的词He knows neither English nor French.短语Are you going by bus or on foot?分句Mary was a good girl, but she had one shortcoming. 从属连词引导： 状语从句 Ill do it as you told me.You will be late unless you hurry.连接代词和连接副词主语从句 What he said proved true.When well start has not been decided yet.表语从句 This is why he didnt come yesterday.That is where he lives.宾语从句The man asked me which I liked best.I cant understand why she is so late.关系代词和关系副词 定语从句 Nicotine is a drug that gets one into the habit of smoking.He came last night when I was out.Step 5: Practicing using linking words误 Both my parents are not at home. They went to the meeting just now.正 Neither of my parents is at home. They went to the meeting just now.析 在英语中both一般用于肯定句中，如用于否定句中，其意义也不同于汉语，如：Both of us are not right. 在英语中应被理解为我们俩不都对。而Neither of us is right。 才能被理解为我们俩无一正确。误 He or his sisters has some tickets for the film.正 He or his sisters have some tickets for the film.析 由or 连接两主语时，谓语动词应与相临近的那一个主语保持一致。误 You should work hard, and you wont pass the exam.正 You should work hard, or you wont pass the exam.析 or作为连词，这里的意思为否则。又如：Hurry up, or youll be late for school.误 Though he is not healthy, but he is ready to help others.正 Though he is not healthy, he is ready to help others.正 He is not healthy, but he is ready to help others.析 虽然但是是中文中的常用结构，但在英文中用了虽然则不要用但是，用了但是则不能再用虽然，二者只可用其一。误 Either you or I are on business.正 Either you or I am on business.析 eitheror 连接两个主语时，其谓语动词与相临近的一个主语相呼应，这也叫做就近原则。类似的用法还有or, neither nor, not onlybut also等。误 Mary is our English teacher and teaching English in our university now.正 Mary is our English teacher and is teaching English in our university now.析 并列句中常常在后面的句子中作一些省略，以免重复，但不是所有词都可作任意的省略的。当你连接的是两个系动词时，后面的那个系动词不可省略，也就是讲连接的部分不可省略。误 My father likes shopping and to collect stamps.正 My father likes shopping and collecting stamps.析 由并列连词连接的两个部分要保持相等的语法结构。如是动名词则都用动名词，如用不定式则都应用不定式，这是初学者要注意的一点。误 My father is listening to music, I am doing my homework.正 My father is listening to music while I am doing my homework.析 两个并列句中间不可用逗号连接，要用并列连词来连接。误 My father asked me that if I wanted to learn how to drive.正 My father asked me if I wanted to learn how to drive.析 宾语从句的连接词只能有一个不能重复使用。误 We will go both to Beijing and Shanghai.正 We will go to both Beijing and Shanghai.析 用bothand作连接词时，其相连接的部分结构也要相同。误 Not only Mary but also her brothers is going to dance.正 Not only Mary but also her brothers are going to dance.析 由not only but also连接两个主语时，其重点在其后面的那一个主语，所以谓语形式应采用就近原则。误 The teacher as well as his students are coming.正 The teacher as well as his students is coming.析 由as well as 连接两个主语时，谓语动词与as well as 后面的名词无关，而与前面的名词相一致。误 Tom does not swim nor play football.正 Tom does not swim or play football.析 nor主要用于连接句子的对等连词，如在否定句中连接某一部分时要用or, 但要注意句子的含意，如：This animal does not like a cow or a horse. 这个动物既不像牛也不像马。This animal does not like a cow but a horse. 这个动物不像牛而像马。误 For there is no light in the classroom. The students must have gone home. 正 The students must have gone home, for there is no light in the classroom.析 由for引出的原因状语从句在使用时要注意不能将该从句置于句首，而应置于主句之后，并在主句与从句之间加一逗号。更要注意的是because, as, since与for 4个表示原因的连词中because是因果关系，是最强的一个，而for是最弱的一个。有些语法书中干脆把for叫做并列连词误 My brother will pass the English exam is no question.正 That my brother will pass the English exam is no question.析 主语从句的引导词that是不可省略的。这一点不要和宾语从句的引导词相提并论。误 This map will show you how will you get to the hotel.正 This map will show you how you will get to the hotel.析 名词性从句作宾语从句使用时，最重要的一点是要用陈述语句。特别要注意的是那些使用双宾语的动词，如：tell, ask, show误 While the clock struck ten, all the lights went out.正 When the clock struck ten, all the lights went out.析 while是强调两个动作在同时进行中，如：While I am doing my home work, my father is reading a newspaper. 而这里的when是正当某某时刻，就在这一时间点上，其重点强调在某一特定时刻某动作的发生。误 While I was walking along the street yesterday, I met an old friend.正 When I was walking along the street yesterday, I met an old friend.析 这里用when表达在一个动作的进行中，另一个动作突然发生了。正在进行的动作用一进行时态，而突然发生的动作用一般时态。误 While I heard the bad news I felt sad.正 When I heard the bad news, I felt sad.析 while不能表达一点儿的时间，即瞬时某一时间点。误 After school some students play football, or others go to the library.正 After school some students play football, while others go to the library.析 while在此处意为而，然而。误 She sang when she walked along the dark street.正 She sang as she walked along the dark street.析 as用于句中时，其要点是强调两个动作的同时进行。这里用when虽然不能讲是语法上的错误，但则看不出来小女孩因独自走黑暗的街道因害怕而唱歌的心情。误 I finished my homework until twelve oclock last night.正 I didnt finished my homework until twelve oclock last night.正 I did my homework until twelve oclock last night.析 until用在句中时其含义是某一动作一直持续到某时结束，那么句中的动词则一定要用持续性动词，如果要用瞬间，或截止性动词时一定要用否定句式。因截止性动作的否定式应看作是持续性的动作。如离开leave是瞬间动作，因一出门即为离开了，而不离开则是长时间的。误 I have studied English when I was twelve.正 I have studied English since I was twelve.析 since引出的时间状语从句是表达了一个时间点，而这个时间点是主句动作的启始点，所以主句一般要用完成时态。误 Because he didnt study hard, so he didnt pass the exam. 正 He didnt pass the exam because he didnt study hard.析 because 与 so在英文中两者不能并用的，只能在句中用其一。误 He was such excited that he could not speak.正 He was so excited that he could not speak.析 so与such的用法可以分为四种情况，用于单数可数名词之前，其格式是such+不定冠词+形容词+单数可数名词，如：It is such a beautiful book that every child likes it. 也可以用so, 其格式是so+形容词+不定冠词+单数可数名词，如：It was so beautiful a book that every child likes it. 在不可数名词前或可数名词复数前这时只能用such, 如：It is such good weather that we want to swim. 又如：They are such good students that they can pass the exam easily. 在few, little， much, many 这4个字前只能用so而不能用such, 如：I have so much money that I can buy everything I want. 当that前只有形容词或副词时，这时只能用so, 如：She is so beautiful that every one likes her. He ran so fast that I couldnt keep up with him.误 He got up earlier this morning so as to that he could catch the first bus. 正 He got up earlier this morning so as to catch the first bus.正 He got up so earlier that he could catch the first bus.析 sothat与so that的用法有相同之处，那就是其后接从句，而so as to 其后要接不定式，即动词原形。这样的词组还有：in order to。误 I want to buy same stamp that you have.正 I want to buy the same