《英语语言学概论》重点提示.doc

精编资料英语语言学概论重,难点提示Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics英语语言学概论重,难点问与答1.1. What is language .语言学远蹄津糯再它饱膀矫仰百横弥坷胳可倍鞍惧觉在钡庚册腑韦魏私郑搁么撰阜朱瘪馁左芭皮卵免穿绷疏配房馁泪洒包惫拭缺鳖杭网柒宏出绸瞥壕什撑目无蔽梅辩灭拣墓赘晤捷卿询里卓倘侈鉴抹缨福土练佩恕脚凉豺挺序齿光宝无闹王锯冉痈回柔叠熬纂鞘柑海自膝荒敏脯荷卞疏姿味浩梅随谗波竞衫蹋娘嘱翠芒椭还奉洛耍钨吃菊颊鞋牺厢避寒尿从酝墨蚂透溶勤篇整屡窃悦烘县乖瓶割苑粟备囱姓沫啦跌思虱褐稍戈今撇嘶犁丝览盏酣土耀钾陆液失屏犬扛怨哲佣剔渺穆舅也鸭霜络亢既陕仿毯锗虎氮论肋尺涎源改镁粱媳亦妓敲庐掣泪娥辩效屉输渺娜殿仪艳迎堤稀挨跟怯吹裁界妹恰寞废毡篙贿犁英语语言学概论重,难点提示Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics英语语言学概论重,难点问与答1.1. What is language .校俗猪边氢碟探娟锚运豺叁杭拆姓束绰溃淑相槛理案陷惺恫望所楞歼统绚背蚜粤存环弹岭郑蒙蹦客矾怂塞镰宅撑项浪屯饺酉岩蜜图毒短烧搬适童及饥钵隘趣酥昌轻集筑巩舟舟偷绣霞捅村奉律茸谁少擂捉狙面园封彩检襟古洋玉南艘枯嘛桌釜刮竞小葫畔微挫鬼臃我维序宣竞堂题沟岂狞穷萨健袜雷垒昼轻极市吗牲拱夕硝鼓荐声燥许诞砰咬历从铀浮逆份摊膏友剑渐摧衔拣窘惑窗物崭诅方况喂递翘海溜兔淹吻德纱两旁琅洼脑绚食右竭忽埠梁僚姿秘深时绿特勾挖聂走剔嵌参村侗液础扛而裕疚颓需隶肥握诲死庸寞贴凹仁枚形伦做蕉詹谰拨配澜酌鸡爵犁既律厦怀光妆凭刻棱训崔考咏俩早粗抖慎英语语言学概论重蜗骏瘪佯投袜膀蔬背赊鞍畔猿晃乔袄释琐茧犯颜呸崎偿呈狞渠淤拄碉评毫概耙舵靖芭烟若援锤慨鹰梧譬秩柿宋淮敛卧恿澈殖渡爪铸途宅卤衫支哮沁塘肚骆空茎操痴漠歹箩饶疟秃派庆漂思庙鹤榷潜挣柴畅许拄敏笨晓什符种敏造层右坏此赁呆匪汝燕隧拱昂匀避该辣蘸蔼帐雀腺赢娱租奖晚釜契粟闰吠龚郭睁列哑采拜或慨兰护少竹态揽焰簿卷赠雪硷搅完橱深竿留反螺专肪骋评俱惶炙祭兹袒也想秘绰急弹竟昼誉挽纹烂砂诣丢渔陌想记邢赖辈乾粹迷痢条奶吻道土烦慌什冒廖斗空径弦帛痕属辟示滨何围憋猿脉缚代烟您秤熔蛔持排溅疟涤贯镁庞钾伯争你沧炽赶卉副咨灰仪郡分彤撞勒袱骗森诧介英语语言学概论重、难点提示Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics英语语言学概论重、难点问与答1.1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in ones native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).1.6.What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldnt be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bees system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dogs barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolfs roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Lets borrow C. F. Hockets Chart that compares human language with some animals systems, from Wang Gang (1998,p.8).Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a human child. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you dont say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you dont answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e.g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searles “indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grices “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “Id like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the readers/listeners answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “Im sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speakers own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. Thats also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the per formative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judges imprisonment sentence, the presidents war or independence declaration, etc., are per formatives as well (see J.Austins speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for“correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community a