International Management 国际企业与跨文化管理.doc

International Management国际管理International management process: 国际管理过程：Applying management concepts and techniques in a multinational environment; 将管理的理念和技术应用到一个跨国的环境中；Adapting management practices to different economic, political, and cultural environments. 针对不同的经济、政治和文化环境采取合适的管理实践。Globalization: the process of integration among countries around the world with a vision of a single market entity: Social Economic Political Technological Cultural全球化是世界上各个国家之间的社会、政治、经济、文化和技术整合的过程；全球化旨在创造一个世界共同体、一个市场。Economic Systems of the World:世界经济体系Market Economy 市场经济 Command Economy计划经济 Mixed Economy 混合经济 Ideologies:意识形态Individualism个人主义People should be free to pursue economic and political endeavors without constraint.人们应该自由的追求经济和政治目的In business context, similar to capitalism and connected to free market society在商业背景下，与资本主义意义相同，与自由市场社会相联系Private property more successful, productive, and progressive than communal property私有权和集体所有权相比更成功，生产性更高更有效率Betterment of society related to level of freedom individuals have in pursuing economic goals.好的社会秩序与个人在自由追求经济目的有关。Collectivism集权主义Does not value individual as such对个人主义不重视Views needs/goals of society at large as more important than individual desires在很大程度上社会的目标或需要高于个人需求No rigid form of collectivism as societal goals differ greatly among cultures在不同的社会文化下不存在严格的集体主义形式e.g.: Fascism: nationalism, authoritarianism, militarism, corporatism, collectivism, totalitarianism 法西斯主义 民族主义 独裁主义 军国主义 社团主义 集体主义 集权主义Socialism社会主义Government ownership of institutions政府拥有多数机构Profit is not the ultimate goal获取利润不是最终目的Can be viewed as moderate example of collectivism in practice可以被看做集体主义在实践中的一个适度的例子Has been practiced in China, North Korea, Cuba已经在中国，朝鲜，古巴采用Democratic socialism, more moderate form, practiced by Great Britains Labour Party, and in France, Spain, and Greece采用社会主义形态的还有英国工人党以及法国西班牙和希腊都有采用 Communism is extreme form of socialist thought共产主义是社会主义者的极端设想Political Systems:Democracy政治体制：民主European roots 起源于欧洲System in which government is controlled by citizens either directly or through elections. 这一体制，公民直接或通过选举来控制政府Democratic society cannot exist without at least a two-party system 民主社会必须拥有至少两个政党Once elected, representative is held accountable to electorate for actions (which limits power of government) 一旦当权，当权者必须就其行为对选民负责（限制了政府权利）Totalitarianism政治体制：极权Only one representative party which exhibits control over every facet of political and human life 只有一个当权政党，该政党对国民生活和政治的方方面面加以控制Power maintained by suppression of opposition 当权者为了保持权力会对反对者加以镇压Dominant ideals include media censorship, political representation, denial of rights, and civil liberties 统治者的主要理念包括新闻调查，政治高压，否认人权和公民自由。Four Global Foundations of Law :四种世界法律基制 Islamic伊斯兰法Socialist 社会主义法 Common 普通法 Civil or code 民法或成文法Basic Principles of International Law国际法基本准则: Sovereignty and Sovereign Immunity主权和主权豁免原则。International Jurisdiction国际司法管辖权Doctrine of Comity礼让主义 Act of State Doctrine国家法令主义 Treatment and Rights of Aliens侨民的待遇和权利 Forum for Hearing and Settling Disputes法院纠纷原则Sovereignty and Sovereign Immunity: An international principle of law which holds that governments have the right to rule themselves as they see fit.主权和主权豁免原则: 坚持认为政府有权决定是否采用他国法律条文来约束自己International Jurisdiction: A jurisdictional principle of international law which holds that every country has jurisdiction over its citizens no matter where they are located 国际司法管辖权: 这项原则认为每一个国家都拥有对其公民的管辖权，无论该公民身在何处Nationality principle国家原则Territoriality principle属地原则认为每一个国家都有在其合法领土内的司法管辖权Protective principle保护性原则认为都有对其国家安全构成威胁的行为的司法管辖权。Doctrine of Comity: A jurisdictional principle of international law which holds that there must be mutual respect for the laws, institutions, and government of other countries in the matter of jurisdiction over their own citizens.礼让主义: 一个国际法的管辖原则，此原则认为应当在法律、制度和其他国家政府对其公民的司法裁判权这些问题上取得相互尊重.Act of State Doctrine: A jurisdictional principle of international law which holds that all acts of other governments are considered to be valid by U.S. courts, even if such acts are illegal or inappropriate under U.S. law.国家法令主义: 所有他国政府的法令都会被美国的法院认为是有效的，即使有时这些法令在美国被认为是不合适的Treatment and Rights of Aliens: Countries have the legal right to refuse admission of foreign citizens and to impose special restrictions on their conduct, right of travel, where they can stay, and what business they may conduct.侨民的待遇和权利: 一国有合法的权利拒绝外国公民入境和对其行为、旅行的权利、逗留的地方和他们所开展的业务施加特殊的管制. Nations can also deport aliens.一国也有权驱逐侨民Culture defined: Acquired knowledge that people use to interpret experience and generate social behavior. This knowledge forms values, creates attitudes, and influences behavi or.文化的定义：文化是已经获取的知识，利用这种知识，人类可以解释各种经验和产生社会行为。这些知识构成了人们的价值观，决定了人们的态度，影响了人们的各种行为。Characteristics of Culture文化的特征Learned文化是学习形成的Shared文化是可以分享的Trans-generational文化是代代相传的Symbolic文化具有象征性Patterned文化是模式化的Adaptive文化是适应性的Values in Culture文化中的价值观Values价值观Learned from culture in which individual is reared来自于人们所扎根的文化Differences in cultural values may result in varying management practices 不同的价值观导致了不同的管理实践Basic convictions that people have about人们所持的基本信念 Right and wrong 正确与错误Good and bad好与坏Important and unimportant重要与不重要文化模式：书上70页Hofstedes Cultural DimensionsPower distance 权力距离Uncertainty avoidance 不确定性规避Individualism/collectivism 个人主义Masculinity/femininity 刚毅性Power distance: Less powerful members accept that power is distributed unequally 权力距离：（组织或机构中）权力较少的成员接受权力不平等分配的程度。High power distance countries: people blindly obey superiors; centralized, tall structures (e.g., Mexico, South Korea, India) 高权力距离的国家：员工盲目遵从上司指令；集权式，拥有金字塔式的结构。Low power distance countries: flatter, decentralized structures, smaller ratio of supervisor to employee (e.g., Austria, Finland, Ireland)低权力距离的国家：通常是分权式的，拥有更扁平化的结构，只拥有少部分的监督人员（例如：澳大利亚，芬兰，爱尔兰）Uncertainty avoidance: people feel threatened by ambiguous situations; create beliefs/institutions to avoid such situations不确定性规避：人们受到模糊不清的情境威胁的程度以及为规避这些威胁而形成的信念和机制。High uncertainty avoidance countries: high need for security, strong belief in experts and their knowledge; structure organizational activities, more written rules, less managerial risk taking (e.g., Germany, Japan, Spain) 不确定性规避程度较高的国家：有较高程度的安全需求，相信专家和知识，拥有大量的组织活动的结构，较多的成文规则，较少的敢于冒险的管理者。Low uncertainty avoidance countries: people more willing to accept risks of the unknown, less structured organizational activities, fewer written rules, more managerial risk taking, higher employee turnover, more ambitious employees (e.g., Denmark and Great Britain)不确定性规避程度较低的国家：员工更愿意接受不确定的风险，组织活动的结构较少，成文规则较少，敢于冒风险的管理者较多，员工流动率较高，富有野心的员工较多。Individualism: People look after selves and immediate family only个人主义：人们只考虑自己和家庭的趋向。High individualism countries: wealthier, protestant work ethic, greater individual initiative, promotions based on market value (e.g., U.S., Canada, Sweden)高个人主义的国家：比较富裕的国家，赞同新教的伦理道德，强调个人创新，按市场价值进行提升（例如：美国，加拿大，瑞典）。High collectivism countries: poorer, less support of Protestant work ethic, less individual initiative, promotions based on seniority (e.g., Indonesia, Pakistan)高集体主义国家：比较贫穷的国家，不太赞同新教伦理道德，个人创新也比较差，且依据年资来进行提升（例如：印度尼西亚，巴基斯坦）Masculinity: dominant social values are success, money, and things刚毅性：社会主导价值观是成功、金钱等类似东西时的情景。High masculine countries: stress earnings, recognition, advancement, challenge, wealth; high job stress (e.g., Germanic countries)刚毅性指数高的国家：注重收入、认可、提升、挑战、财富，高工作压力（如德语国家）High feminine countries: emphasize caring for others and quality of life; cooperation, friendly atmosphere., employment security, group decision making; low job stress (e.g., Norway)高柔弱性国家：强调关心别人和注重生活品质：合作，友好的氛围，雇用安全，集体决策，低工作压力（如 挪威）Universalism vs. Particularism普遍性和特殊性Universalism: ideas/practices can be applied everywhere普遍性：理论和实践在任何地方都适用。High universalism countries: formal rules, close adhere to business contracts (e.g., Canada, U.S., Netherlands, Hong Kong)高普遍性国家：正式的规则，严格遵守商业合同（例如：加拿大，美国，荷兰，香港）Particularism: circumstances dictate how ideas/practices apply; high particularism countries often modify contracts (e.g., China, South Korea) 特殊性：受环境制约，应用理论与实践；高特殊性国家经常修改合同（例如：中国，韩国Individualism vs. Communitarianism个人主义和团体主义Individualism: people as individuals个人主义：人们把他们自己看做个体Countries with high individualism: stress personal and individual matters; assume great personal responsibility (e.g., Canada, Thailand, U.S., Japan)高度个人主义国家：强调个人因素;承担较多的个人责任（例如：加拿大，泰国，美国，日本）Communitarianism: people regard selves as part of group团体主义：人们把他们自己看做是群体中的一员。Value group-related issues; committee decisions; joint responsibility (e.g., Malaysia, Korea)团体利益相关的问题：委员会做决策；共同承担责任Neutral vs. Emotional中立文化和情感文化Neutral: culture in which emotions not shown在中立文化中，情感被抑制。High neutral countries, people act stoically and maintain composure (e.g., Japan and U.K.)在高度的中立文化国家中，人们行为坚忍，始终保持冷静形象。Emotional: Emotions are expressed openly and naturally情感文化中，情感是开放的，是自然流露的。High emotion cultures: people smile a lot, talk loudly, greet each other with enthusiasm (e.g., Mexico, Netherlands, Switzerland) 高情感文化中：人们充满了笑声，大声说话 ，近乎狂热的互致祝福。Specific vs. Diffuse明确文化和扩散文化Specific: large public space shared with others and small private space guarded closely在明确文化中：大多数人分享公共空间，而与亲属和朋友分享私人空间。High specific cultures: people open, extroverted; strong separation work and personal life (e.g., Austria, U.K., U.S.)在明确文化中：人是开放的、 外向的；公众空间和私人空间严格区分Diffuse: public and private spaces similar size, public space guarded because shared with private space; people indirect and introverted, work/private life closely linked (e.g., Venezuela, China, Spain) 在扩散文化里,一般来说人们难以很快被他人邀请到他自己的开放的公共空间，因为一旦进入公众空间，私人空间也容易进入。这种文化中的人们显得间接、内向，公众空间和私人空间往往紧密结合在一起。Achievement vs. Ascription成就与归咎Achievement culture: status based on how well perform functions (Austria, Switzerland, U.S.) 成就文化：人们因他履行职责的水平而获得相应的地位。（奥地利，瑞士，美国） Ascription culture: status based on who or what person is (e.g., Venezuela, China, Indonesia) 归咎文化：人们的地位决定于他是谁或任什么职务（委内瑞拉，中国，印尼） Time 时间Sequential: only one activity at a time; appointments kept strictly, follow plans as laid out (U.S.) 连续的：人们倾向于一个时间内只做一件事，严格遵守会面时间和地点，不偏离计划。Synchronous: multi-task, appointments are approximate, schedules subordinate to relationships (e.g., France, Mexico) 同步的：处于同步性途径文化中的人们经常中断正在做的事情去会见或是欢迎别人来到他们的办公室 Present vs. Future:现在导向和将来导向 Future more important (Italy, U.S., Germany) 将来比过去更重要（意大利，美国，德国）Present more important (Venezuela, Indonesia 现在是最重要的（委内瑞拉，印尼）All 3 time periods equally important (France, Belgium 这三个不同的时段大致同等重要（法国，比利时 The Environment 环境Inner-directed: people believe in control of outcomes (U.S., Switzerland, Greece, Japan) 内部控制：人们倾向于控制结果（美国，瑞士，希腊，日本）Outer-directed: people believe in letting things take own course (China, many other Asian countries)外部控制：人们倾向于任其自由发展（中国，其他一些亚洲国家）以汤皮诺的研究为基础的文化群体：盎格鲁文化群 亚洲文化群 拉丁美洲文化群 欧洲文化群德意志文化群Strategic Predispositions战略倾向Four distinct predispositions toward doingthings in a particular way:以特定方式行事的四种不同倾向：Ethnocentric 母国中心倾向Polycentric 多元中心倾向Regio-centric 地区中心倾向Geocentric 全球中心倾向Ethnocentric predisposition 母国中心倾向 A nationalistic philosophy of management whereby the values and interests of the parent company guide strategic decisions.一种以母国的价值观和兴趣来指导战略决策的国家主义的管理哲学。Polycentric predisposition 多元中心倾向 A philosophy of management whereby strategic decisions are tailored to suit the cultures of the countries where the MNC operates. 一种定制战略决策以适应跨国公司运作所在国家文化的管理哲学。 Regio-centric predisposition 地区中心倾向 A philosophy of management whereby the firm tries to blend its own interests with those of its subsidiaries on a regional basis. 一种将企业自身兴趣与子公司的兴趣在地区基础上整合起来的管理哲学。Geocentric predisposition 全球中心倾向 A philosophy of management whereby the company tries to integrate a global systems approach to decision making. 一种试图整合一个全球体系来进行决策的管理哲学。 Parochialism: view world through own eyes and perspectives 乡土观念：用自己的眼睛和观点来看待世界的倾向 Simplification: exhibit same orientation toward different cultural groups 简单化：对不同的文化群体采取相同方式的过程Four culture type Four Cultural Types 1Family Culture: Strong emphasis on hierarchy and orientation to persons 家族文化：强烈关注等级和以员工为导向Power oriented, headed by leader regarded as caring parent 权利导向，被看做细心的家长的领导的带领下Management takes care of employees, ensures theyre treated well, and have continued employment管理者照顾员工们，保证他们受到好的对待，并继续保持雇佣关系Catalyze and multiply energies of personnel or end up supporting leader who is ineffective and drains energy and loyalties 能激发和增强员工的活力或者以支持一位无效率的、耗尽他们的精力与忠诚的领导人而告终2. Eiffel Tower:埃菲尔铁塔型文化Strong emphasis on hierarchy and orientation to task以着重强调等级和工作为向导Jobs well defined; coordination from top公司恰当地定义工作；每件事都自上而下协调好Culture narrow at top; broad at base文化结构顶部窄，底部宽Relationships specific and status remains with job关系是特定的，工作确定身份Few off-the-job relationships between manager and employee管理层很少与员工建立非工作的关系Formal hierarchy is impersonal and efficient正式的等级制是客观且有效率的。3. Guided Missile:制导导弹型文化Strong emphasis on equality in workplace and in task强调在工作场所中的平等及工作导向Culture oriented to work组织文化是工作导向的Work undertaken by teams or project groups工作通常由团队或项目组来承担All team members equal团队中的每个成员都是平等的Treat each other with respect团队之间要相互尊重Egalitarian and task-driven organizational culture主张平等和任务导向的组织文化 Incubator Culture:孵化器型文化Strong emphasis on equality and personal orientation强调平等和员工导向Organization as incubator for self- expression and self-fulfillment组织的角色是组织成员自我发展和自我实现的孵化器Little formal structure很少有正式结构Participants confirm, criticize, develop, find resources for, or help completedevelopment of innovative product orservice参与者主要充当证实、批评、发展、寻找资源或帮助实现革新性产品或服务的研制等角色。口头沟通方式直接与间接 简明与详细 情境与个人 感情与工具性沟通信息流的方式在美国每个人都认为其与高层有直接的沟通渠道 中国有很多人，以至于组织有统一的结构并以层级结构的复制为特征，所有的信息流动都是通过渠道实现的。在联合国每个人都被安排在一个循环中以至于没有人比他人更有权力，这种前后相邻的人理智的结成同盟，这就组成了国际联合体的一部分。在法国层级结构中的一些人与其他人没有联系，标明了这种结构的随机性程度。沟通的障碍：语言障碍 文化障碍 知觉障碍 Communication Effectiveness实现有效沟通：Improve feedback systems改进反馈体系Language training提供语言培训Cultural training提供文化培训Flexibility and cooperation提高灵活性和合作Steps of the Negotiation Process:谈判过程1. Planning计划2. Interpersonal relationship building个人关系建立3. Exchange of task related information彼此针对谈判标的交换意见4. Persuasion劝说5. Agreement达成协议Negotiation Tactics谈判策略n Location地点Time limits时间限制Buyer-seller relationship买方和卖方的关系Bargaining behaviors讨价还价行为Use of extreme behaviors极端行为方式的运用Promises, threats and other behaviors威胁、许诺和其他行为Nonverbal behaviors非口头行为方式谈判的类型：分配式谈判 获取最大价值为目标 个人私利的动机 分散的利益短期的关系 最终是输赢的格局整合式谈判 以创造和获取价值为目标以群体合作的收益为动机，重叠的利益，谋求长期的关系以双赢格局为结果。Approaches to Strategic Planning战略计划的方法Economic Imperative 经济规则导向Administrative Coordination 行政协调Political Imperative 政治规则导向Quality Imperative 质量规则导向Economic Imperative:经济规则导向 Economic imperative focused MNCs employ worldwide strategy based on cost leadership, differentiation, and segmentation 奉行经济规则导向的跨国公司，会运用成本领先、差异化、细分的国际战略Strategy also used when product is regarded as generic and therefore is not sold on name brand or support service 该战略也适用于不需依赖商标品牌或支持性服务来销售的商品Often sell products for which large portion of value is added in upstream activities of industry value chain通常这些公司所销售的产品中，很大一部分价值是在价值链上游加入的Research and development 研发Manufacturing生产Distribution 配送(2) Political Imperative政治规则导向MNCs using political imperative are country-responsive; approach designed to protect local market niches采用政治规则导向方法的跨国公司，是具有国家敏感性的，其方法是保护当地市场的地位These MNCs often use country-centered or multi-domestic strategy 这些跨国公司通常应用国家中心或者多国战略Success of product or service depends heavily on生产或服务上的成功主要依赖于Marketing营销Sales销售Service 服务3) Quality Imperative质量规则导向Quality imperative has 2 paths 质量规则导向包括2个部分 Change in attitudes and raising of expectations for service quality 转变态度并提高对服务质量的期望值Implementation of management practices designed to make quality improvement an ongoing process 实施那些能够使质量提高成为一个持续过程的管理实践 TQM Total Quality Management (see next slide)全面质量管理 Cross-train personnel to do jobs of all members in work group 交叉培训员工，是指对组内所有工作都很熟悉 Process re-engineering designed to help identify/eliminate redundant tasks 重构流程，鉴别和淘汰冗余任务及不经济的劳动 Reward system designed to reinforce quality performance 设计奖励制度，以提高质量管理绩效 Quality operationalized by meeting or exceeding customer expectations 质量应符合或超过顾客的期望 Quality strategy formulated at top management level and diffused through organization 质量战略在组织最高层制定，然后推广到整个组织 TQM techniques: traditional inspection and statistical quality control; cutting edge Human Resource Management techniques such as self-managing teams and empowerment 所应用的技术涵盖的范围从传统性质的检查和统计质量控制，到编辑人力资源管理技巧，如自我管理团队和授权(4) Administrative Coordination Imperative行政协调 MNC makes strategic decisions based on merits of individual situation rather than predetermined economic or political strategy 跨国公司是基于自身的优势而非运用预先制定的经济或政治战略来做出战略决策 Least common approach to formulation and implementation of strategy 最常用的方法是制定和执行战略 Many large MNCs work to combine all 4 of the approaches to strategic planning 许多大型跨国公司将经济、政治、质量以及管理手段综合成为一套战略规划Global vs. Regional Strategies全球性战略与区域性战略 Fundamental Tension: The globalization vs. national responsiveness conflict.根本的问题是全球化与国家回应指间的矛盾 Global integration: Production and distribution of products and services of a homogenous type and quality on a worldwide basis全球整合：在世界范围内生产和销售相同类型、相同质量的产品和服务 National responsiveness: need to understand different consumer tastes in segmented regional markets and respond to different national standards and regulations imposed by autonomous governments and agencies国家回应：需要理解各细分区域市场的不同口味并且对各政府和机构颁布的不同标准和规则作出回应Global Integration vs. National Responsiveness全球整合与国家回应矩阵Appropriateness of each strategy depends on pressures for cost reduction and local responsiveness in each country served:每种战略的适用性依赖于成本削减和进行当地回应的压力大小 Global strategy is low-cost strategy attempting to benefit from scale economies in production, distribution, marketing全球战略是一种低成本战略。以求从生产、分销和营销的规模经济中获益 Transnational strategy pursued when high cost pressures and high demand for local responsiveness跨国战略在成本压