钱小锋讲义.doc

新托福阅读出题原则 所谓出题原则就是阅读文章当中具有出题意义的符号，词汇，结构或者内容。 出题原则的用处集中体现在1. 对于一些出题位置不清楚的题目的快速与准确定位：答案可能出现的区域2. 提高阅读速度，提高阅读质量：有重点有目的有预期1. 引号凡是用引号引起的句子，要么在引用，要么在强调，往往有考题对应。What of the Southern leaders, all of whom were liable to charges of treason? One of these leaders, Jefferson Davis, president of the Southern Confederacy, was the subject of an insulting popular Northern song, “Hang Jeff Davis from a Sour Apple Tree.” And even children sang it, Davis was temporarily chained in his prison cell during the early days of his two-year imprisonment. But he and the other Southern leaders were finally released, partly because it was unlikely that a jury from Virginia, a Southern Confederate state, would convict them. All the leaders were finally pardoned by President Johnson in 1868 in an effort to help reconstruction efforts proceed with as little bitterness as possible.Why does the author mention a popular song?a) To give an example of a Northern attitude towards the Southb) To illustrate the Northern love of musicc) To emphasize the cultural differences between the North and the Southd) To compare the Northern and the Southern presidents2. 例证凡是涉及到 （概述 + for example/such as + 例子）的地方往往会有问题对应。托福文章都是学术性议论文或者说明文，既然是议论文就必须有论证结构，所以对论证结构的把握往往就是考察的重点。对于例证的考察集中在两点：1 举例的目的 2 列举的事实细节 都可以通过回读原文定位解答。此类题型的标志词主要包括for example, such as, for instance和：出现for example时有题目对应的概率尤其高。 Furthermore, some element of learning is often evident since younger birds do not build as well as their practiced elders. Young ravens, for example, first attempt to build with thick sticks of quite unsuitable size, while a jackdaws first nest includes virtually any movable object.Between 1890 and 1920, for example, some 250,000 new residential lots were recorded within the orders of Chicago, most of them located in outlying areas.The techniques of pottery manufacture had evolved well before the Greek period, but marked stylistic developments occurred in shape and in decoration, for example, in the interplay of black and other glazes with the red surface of the fired pot.The author mentions _in line xx as an example of 3. 重要位置的转折凡是文章前4行或者每段首尾句出现的以but, however, nevertheless, rather than, on the other hand为标志的转折时，要么有考题对应，要么揭示文章主题，需要重点关注。but 这个词只有在文章前四行或者每段首尾句中出现时才重要，而像however, nevertheless, rather than, on the other hand这样的词只要出现就必须重视，因为它们经常充当考点，并且对把握全文结构，理清文章脉络至关重要。值得一提的是，这几个词成为考点的几率不同。 Nevertheless成为考点的几率最高，其次是however和but。但是要注意，以下的几个词虽然并不翻译成”但是”，但是实际上是明显的表达转折的连词。它们是：in fact, indeed, actually, practically, virtuallyThis law proved helpful to some farmers in the largely treeless state of Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas. Nevertheless, fewer than 25 percent of the 245,000 who took up the land under the Act obtained final title to the property.When each feather has been shed and replaced, then the molt can be said to be complete. This however is an abstraction that often does not happen: incomplete, overlapping, and arrested molts are quite common.This was less true in the colonial South, where life centered around large farms, known as plantations, rather than around towns, as was the case in the areas further north along the Atlantic coastline.4. 固定背景文章中凡是涉及以下两种内容时，多会集中于文章的内容出题，且题目的提问方式和正确答案的设计相对固定。4.1 殖民地北美文章（1620-1775）殖民地北美文章集中议论殖民时期和建国之初的美国历史，内容集中在城市发展，经济发展，艺术和农业几个方面。内容所反映的核心主题常常只有一个，就是improvement， 进步。并且这样的进步往往与当时的英国有些牵连。这类文章往往第一句话就点明文章内容发生的时间和议论的主题。Seventeenth-century houses in colonial North America were simple structures that were primarily functional, carrying over traditional designs that went back to the Middle Ages.Before the mid-1860s, the impact of the railroads in the United States was limited.As the merchant class expanded in the eighteenth-century North American colonies, the silversmith and the coppersmith business rose to serve it.然而，无论哪个领域，议论的主题往往都是进步，发展如何日新月异。如城市发展不断完善，经济发展成绩喜人，艺术发展从无到有，农业发展一日千里等。这些内容是美国自吹自擂的绝好平台，也是托福考试借此传播美国文化的绝好机会。还有一点值得注意：这类文章大多与英国相关，但是其内容的发展一般都是从学习到创新，从仿效到超越，从被欺压到完全独立。1.2 印第安人北美殖民史上白人对土著印第安人犯下过滔天罪行，所以美国主流历史学界对印第安文化的评论往往透露着一股子内疚与同情。托福只要涉及到印第安人，往往是赞扬和肯定，尤其体现在四个方面：建筑，艺术，社会和农业。D-144 1-3建筑：好话连篇，归结起来就是：高级的复杂的As many as one thousand years ago in Southwest, the Hopi and Zuni Indians of North America were building with adobe- sun-baked brick plastered with mud. The largest, later name Pueblo Bonito (Pretty Town) by the Spanish, rose in five terraced stories, contained more than 800 rooms, and could have housed a population of 1,000 or more.艺术： 让人惊诧莫名，审美价值巨高无比，实用价值更高If the basketry materials used by the Pomo people were limited, the designs were amazingly varied.The basket made by an Indian tribe was so delicate that it can hold even water.社会：组织严密，分工明确The Amasazi family was matrilinear, that is, descent was traced through the female.The women made baskets and pottery; the men wove textiles and crafted turquoise jewellery.Each village had two chiefs. The village chief dealt with the land disputes and religious affairs. The war chief led the men in fighting during occasional conflicts that broke out with neighbouring villages and directed the men in community building projects.农业：三种主要作物grain, maize, squash 谷物玉米南瓜5. 定义下定义的语言现象往往伴随考题的设置。如正确答案是对定义的改写或者是符合定义的例子。4.1 “, that is, ” 作插入语4.2 同位语与插入语有区别，只有加在两个逗号之间并对第一个逗号以前的名词行解释的词汇，短语或者句子才是同位语。4.3 A-B 破折号之间的解释说明成分Proponents of organic foods a term whose meaning varies greatly frequently proclaim that such products are safer and more nutritious than others.4.4 平行结构在“A and B, A or B 和A, or B”各个结构中，and和or 所连接的名词A，B常常在词义，结构和词性上尽量保持一致。如真题interests and inclinations; strategies and seams; labellum, or lip; radio transmitters, or other devices值得注意的是托福中出现最多的平行结构 A and B和A， or B。 其中A, or B 换句话说，同义反复；A and B 就不一定了。如果两边都是名词，一般是平行结构。如果是动词，则可能是递进关系。Modern computers can quickly compile and analyze this large volume of weather information.a) put together b) look upc) pile highd) work over5. 列举原文连续提到三个以上的现象叫做列举。一般要加以关注。 i. 名词列举They used the pots they made for cooking, storing food, and carrying things from places to places.Which of the following is NOT mentioned in the passage as a way that ancient people used pottery?a) to hold foodb) to wash clothesc) to cookd) to transport objects ii. 对应式列举They were not juicy like the cultivated eastern grasses, but had short, hard stems. Which of the following was NOT mentioned as a characteristic of western grasses?a) They have tough stems.b) They are not affected by dry weather.c) They can be grown indoors.d) They contain little moisture. iii. 句子式列举Young people were staying at school longer, more women were working; young married couples were buying automobiles or houses before starting families; rising living standards were cutting down the size of families.The author mentions all of the following as causes of declines in population growth after 1957 EXCEPTa) people being better educatedb) people getting married earlierc) better standards of livingd) couples buying houses iv. 重复再现式列举 v. 分散式列举6. 比较如果是段落首尾句出现同级比较，比较级，最高级，尤其是最高级，常常是涉及考题的，值得注意。需要注意原文中的比较，如果细节选项中出现了表示比较级最高级的词，则原文一定要1. 提及被比较的两个或者全部事物 2. 把它们拿来比较了 3. 得出比较结果了。Certainly no creature in the sea is odder than the common sea cucumber.Compared with the other sea creatures the sea cucumber is verya) dangerousb) intelligentc) stranged) fat8. 因果关系文章中尤其是各段收尾句（主要是全文首尾句）出现因果关系常常涉及考点。Martha Grahams territory of innumerable dances and a self-sufficient dance technique is a vast but closed territory, since to create an art of ones experience alone is ultimately a self-limiting act.According to the passage, which of the following most influenced Martha Grahams dances and techniques?a) Her own experiencesb) Exotic and idyllic themesc) Familiar classical stories d) The works of St. Denis and Duncan表格题 以表格形式出现的阅读题，分为针对全文重点内容发问的对比表格题和针对全文主题和结论发问的总结表格题。 ETS规定每篇托福阅读文章至少要有一道表格题。导致的结果就是总结表格题出题比率明显高于对比表格题。因为每篇文章都可以出总结表格题，但是只有那种设计对比对照，明确过程或者分类列举或者论述结构的文章才适合出对比表格题。 总结表格题一般采取通栏的形式；对比表格题通常都有纵列。9. 概括总结题 summarizing important ideas/prose summary 概括就是把一篇文章的主要观点以简短的形式表达出来，就是要挑出最能反映文章主题性信息的陈述填入表格。 总结摘要中不会含有与主题无关的，细节的或者支持性的论述。 错误选项特征 选项是细节信息或是支持性论述而非主要观点（细节） 根据文章的论述，选项的观点不够准确或是错误观点（矛盾） 选项中的观点与原文无关或者在原文中没有提及（未提及） 解题思路：略读，关注focus+attitude+structure,快速浏览文章，掌握主要观点，写作目的和结构 总结表格题出题模式有两种1. 针对全文出题，答案由全文的主题，全文的结论和对重点段落的概述三部分组成。2. 针对文章的重点支持性段落出题，答案由对应的段落主题，段落结论和段落中重点支持性论述与例子的概述三部分组成。 具体说来就是阅读文章每段/或者某个具体段落的TS，首尾句，以及重要论述语句，比对选项进行选择。排除明显的细节信息选项和与原文表述不相符的选项，剩下的就是正确选项。 正确选项特征 正确选项必须与本题的引导句信息 introductory sentence相关：能够直接支持引导句的结论，能当分论点。 正确选项必须是文章中的重要信息通常是段落的TS主题句改写, 正确选项必须是原文中处于被其他论据或细节支持的信息 解题步骤1. 通过表格上方提示判断表格类型：总结表格2. 通过总结表格的选项判断此题是对全文发文还是针对局部段落发文。确定搜索范围，目标集中便于筛选。3. 结合笔记，注意对照选项，排除法做题10. 信息组织题 organizing information/fill in a table 文章的结构与作者写作目的有紧密联系。文章的结构是作者为了达到特定的写作目的而选择的表达观点和传递信息的方式。托福阅读中常见的，决定文章结构的写作目的包括 比较或者对比事物或观点 描述某个事物的不同部分 列出不同的 论点 理解文章写作目的，组织整篇文章的信息，按照不同的类别将信息重组归类。即选择合适的信息填入表格，并将这些选项与其主要特点相对应。注意有若干选项不可选。 考点： 文章中对比对照的关系。学术性文章常常涉及到好几种事物/现象，它们或者以时间为主线，或者以确定的步骤为主线，或者以事物特有的某些特征为主线形成对比。 出题方式： Select the appropriate sentences from the answer choices and match them to the type of _that they describe. Two of the answer choices will NOT be used. 解题思路：扫读，在文章中快速找出某些信息。如果答案是正确的，扫读应该可以很快在原文中找出相应的信息，从而证实答案。 正确答案应该是对整篇文章的内容概括，包含全文的主要观点和重要的支持性论述。 备选答案总会多于正确答案，一些备选答案为干扰选项。 错误选项特征： 根据原文的论述，选项不够准确或者是错误观点(比如基于原文提到的信息做出的明显错误的推断或者总结)：注意错误选项同样可能含有与文章中的原词或原句相匹配或者相似的词或者短语） 选项和原文无关或者原文没有提及。 解题步骤1. 明确表格中的对比项：文章中几个不同事物之间相对比的纲，也是进行纵向对比的线索。2. 读懂所有选项，判断题目对应的范围，划定回读范围。3. 结合笔记，根据对比项将选项进行分类。8. 句子插入题recognizing coherence/insert text questions 连贯就是一篇文章内各部分之间的整体性和条理性。连贯的文章，其段落内部的句子之间及句子内部所表达的意思都是有逻辑和条理的。结构紧凑，条理清晰的文章很容易被理解。连贯题就是针对文章内部整体性和条理性考察的题目。考察学生把一句话插入原文最佳位置的能力。 出题思路：答案的唯一性1. 需要插入的句子与原文之间有明确的逻辑关系，常常是以逻辑副词的形式体现出来的联系2. 需要插入的句子含有明确的指代关系，即这种指代关系只有放在答案所指出的地方才有效和明确。3. 需要插入的句子在句意上与原文有明确的意义上的关联，而且这种句意关联只有放在答案所指出的地方才能够使原文通常。 提问方式： Look at the four squares that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? 解题思路 不仅需要了解这篇文章的逻辑，还要了解句与句之间的语法联系（比如代词的指代）。要确保插入原文的句子与其前后句在逻辑上的衔接，以及代词与其所指代的名词的一致性。(OG-49) 注意要插入原文的句子的结构和逻辑关系，尤其注意逻辑连接词/过渡词提供的重要信息。相邻句子在论述对象上往往存在关联，如顺承上一句的话题（主语，宾语等） 对文章目的和结构的理解：连贯性与写作目的有关：比如提到一个名词或者术语，然后给出它的定义，最后举例解释说明 首先，认真阅读要插入的句子，找出题干句子中的关键词。所谓关键词一般是名词或代词，在句子中做主语或宾语，一般指代插入句子的前面或后面那个句子中的某个相同名词或同义词，即同义词复现原则(focus顺承原则)。然后，将句子插入该位置，认真阅读题干句子是否和前后句子在语义逻辑上相符合。 把握句子逻辑关系，充分利用过渡词和代词，迅速确定上下文语义逻辑关系。 指代词: 代词往往指代离其较近的，在其之前的一个实义的名词或者句子。代词与其指代对象之间往往不可分割。 主观判断，评论类语言往往统领或总结一段论述 关键词，代词对应法：目的词，指代词，文章结构 见代词往前找指代对象，不得有歧义。 见名词往后找随后有例证，解释，定义或者说明。 过渡词/逻辑连接词：连贯性的重要线索，一方面衔接句意，另一方面控制句子的顺序，从而显示连续句子之间的关系 “two reasons”, “first” 和 “second reason”过渡词，关联词整理(1) 过渡词按其作用可分为起、承、转、合四类：表示启的过渡词有：First, firstly, at first, first of all, in the first place, to start with, to begin with, nowadays. At present, in my opinion, personally, in a sense, for one thing, in general, generally speaking, comparatively speaking, in some cases, in a way, clearly, obviously, undoubtedly等.表示承的过渡词有：Second, secondly, in the second place, third, thirdly, furthermore, moreover, besides, in addition, whats more, for anther thing, what is worse, in other words, apart from that, at the same time, meanwhile, meantime, particularly, especially, in essence, in fact, in reality.等表示转的过渡词有：But, however, nevertheless, on the other hand, while, whereas, or , otherwise, yet, instead, rather, conversely, on the contrary, in contrast, at any rate, in any case, in spite of, despite等表示合的过渡词有：Finally, in conclusion, to conclude, in summary, to sum up, in short, in belief, on the whole, consequently, as a consequence, therefore, above all, after all, as a result, thus, eventually, in a word, hence.(2)按照意思和表示的关系可分为：举例，比较， 对比，原因，结果，让步和强调.表示举例的过渡词有：For example, for instance, such as, take as example, that is, namely, say等表示比较的过渡词有：Also, too, similarly, like, both, likewise, the same as, in the same way, equally important, another, in addition to, just asto等表示对比的过渡词有：On the contrary, on the other hand, in contrast, by contrast, different from, unlike, whereas, while, otherwise, yet, but, rather than, nevertheless, not onlybut also, someothers, the formerthe latter等表示原因的过渡词有：Because, because of, due to, owning tom as, since, for, seeing that, considering that, now that, not that.but that, on account of, on the ground of, in that, as a result of等 I表示结果的过渡词有：Consequently, as a consequence, as a result, thus, so, hence, therefore, because of this, for this reason, on the account, is follows that等表示让步的过渡词有：Though, although, no matter, even if, even though, however, whatever as等表示强调的过渡词有：Especially, particularly, chiefly, actually, in fact, in essence, in reality, certainly, most important of all, above all, surely, no doubt, even worse, indeed 错误选项特征 打乱了相邻句子间的逻辑性 影响了逻辑语的正确使用 打乱了代词与其指代对象之间的逻辑关系 隔开了本来应该是相邻的两句话 出题位置： 不外乎三点：段落开始处，段落中间某处，段落结尾处。开头结尾处在一个议论性或者学术文章段落中的地位相对特殊，要求句子必须有相应的特色。这往往是解题的一个重要考量，把握好这一规律往往那个可以帮助我们解题。学术性的议论文a) 段落开始的地方一般都是一句具有高度概括性的句子以便引出或者统领下文b) 段落结尾处一般是所举的支持性的例子或者总结性语言。 Contingencies are events that might affect what you plan to do, but rarely are out of your control.Even the best plans are rarely carried out without some problems. Good managers learn to deal with problems as they come up. They make decisions as they are needed and adjust plans when necessary. Flexible plans allow for several contingencies. For example, rain is a contingency that might affect the success of an outdoor event.Trying to move indoors at the last minute could be a disaster. Therefore, your plan should include a “rain plan.” 让我们先认真阅读题干句子，不难看出此句中的关键词是contingency 而且，这个句子是对这个词汇的一个解释或定义，在仔细阅读带黑框的文章段落，会注意到在第五个黑框前面的句子中首次提到了contingencies一词，在看第二个黑框后面则是举例说明，如果把句子插在第二个方框的位置，就可以看出，这样即符合了我们所说的同义词复现原则，也符合了“第一次出现定义举例说明”的逻辑原则。 This irritation is caused by viruses or bacteria, exposure to tobacco smoke, or air pollution.Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes in the lungs. It often appears after a cold or an upper respiratory infection that does not heal completely. It also may accompany childhood infections such as measles, whooping cough, and typhoid fever. The inflamed bronchial tubes secrete a sticky mucus called sputum. It is difficult for the tiny hairs on the bronchi to clear out this sputum. The cough that comes with bronchitis is the bodys attempt to eliminate it. Other symptoms include discomfort or tightness in the chest, low fever, sore throat, and sometimes wheezing. Severe cases of bronchitis may lead to pneumonia. 从这一题不难看出，题干中的关键词irritation，虽然没有在文章中找到同样的词汇，但在文章中第一句中很容易找到一个同义词inflammation，这也同样符合我们所说的同义词复现原则，所以第一个方框就是插入句子的位置。 However, the ground surface is spongy and wet to the touch.Bogs are a distinctive type of wetland. They appear relatively dry, with only small amounts of shallow water visible. The surface material is largely sphagnum moss of other organic matter rather than mineral soil. Bogs are usually characterized by evergreen trees and shrubs and are underlain by deep peat deposits. Bogs will develop in former glacial lakes by the gradual accumulation of organic matter falling from beneath a floating mat of vegetation advancing out over the water. 阅读题干，我们很容易就能找出关键中心词是 “spongy and wet”，根据题干中的转折词however，我们应该判断在此句义之前应该有一相对应的反义词出现，快速阅读文章很快就会找个 “dry”这个对应的反义词，所以，第二个方框就是答案所在的位置。 解题步骤1. 理解需要插入的句子2. 分析句子：概括，结论，举例还是别的细节？3. 逐一代入4. 从逻辑副词，指代关系，句义层面判断最佳位置6. 目的题 determining purpose 针对写作目的，即作者写这段文字的原因提出的问题。这个目的可能是通知，下定义，解释，说明，对比，批评，举例等等。写作目的与文章主题紧密相关。并且，文章的每一个部分可能会有不同的目的。例如，一段话可能定义了一个概念，另一段话举例说明这个概念，而后面一段话可能把这个概念和别的观点对比。 考生需要理解为什么在文章正中某个特别位置或者以某种特殊的方式陈述一个特别的信息。通常不会考查整篇阅读文章的结构，而是常常关注句子或者段落之间的逻辑联系。 解答目的题常常需要结合文字的内容，语气和结构来判断其写作的目的。 很多时候一处细节的写作目的不是从句群本身看出的，而是从其与上下文的关系推导出的。 提问方式： 1. Why does the author mention _in paragraph _?2. The author mentions/discusses _in paragraph _in order to _?3. The author uses X as an example of 常见表示写作目的的词/词组需要熟悉argue, define, illustrate, prove, caution, describe, introduce, show, classify, emphasize, persuade, summarize, compare, explain, point out, support, contrast, give examples, praise, trace, criticize, identify, predict, warn 常见错误选项特征1. 太笼统：一个超出了问题关注范围的目的2. 不准确：非真实信息或者只是部分真实3. 不相关：文中没有提到或者问题无关 解题思路：定位细节，然后结合内容，语气和结构判断目的 读选项的方法：谓语动词+宾语 逐个淘汰D-110-Q5 D-111-Q107. 释义/简化句子题recognizing paraphrases/sentence simplification 释义就是对所考察的句子进行解释与改写。要求在保持原句意思（描述对象，逻辑）不变的同时使用不同的表达（结构顺序，单词）。 要找句子的核心信息， essential information,即其最基本的意思。 提问方式： Which sentence below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave our essential information. 所考核的句子主要由主语，谓语，宾语和修饰语构成。ETS在此类题时套路只有三种1. 语序基本不变，同义替换重点词汇和词组2. 句序变化，同义替换重点词汇和词组3. 对原句进行总结性复述（最常见） 释义的句子可以有不同的句子结构，或者可以把从句顺序打乱。 释义的句子可以用到同义词或者其它表达方式来表达和原句相同的观点。 释义的句子可以用其所指代的内容（一般是前面句子中的内容）来代替原句中的代词/其它指示性单词。 实质是句子简化，simplification, 要求逻辑不变，原句主谓宾都要出现，句式变换后 结构角色会变，但是一定要出现。总结性复述 However, the two seasons of summer and winter landscapes there are so diverse that a single protective colo