GRE Argument模板.doc

ETS范文提炼模板（参考P16）The notion/statement/conception/concept thatseems/appears at first glance/to be an obvious/First of all/to begin with/as mentioned in the argument,(逻辑缺陷).The statistics about/onwould be more accurate/convincing/persuasive/convictive/eloquent if.The argument above is weakened/crippled/impaired by the fact that it fails to/does not take into account.Also/In addition/Additionally/Besides/Furthermore, the statistics/data/figures above are based entirely/solely on.The statistics also does not differentiate betweenand.The conclusion thatsuggests/indicates/demonstrates/reveals that it is presumed that.This is usually not the case/this is not necessarily the case. Given that, (事实的原因).Finally, there is apparently/obviously/inherently no sufficient/adequate evidence to testify/sustain that.For example To sum up, this argument fails to substantiate/authenticate/verify his statement that, for the evidence cited in the analysis/passage does not lead strong support to what the surveyor claims/argues/states/maintains. To take the claim more convincing/persuasive, the speaker/author needs to provide/offer more information with regard to/concerning.（尽量不用not可用fail to; for-as-since）Argument十大逻辑错误分类一调查类错误1调查过程错误Procedure Selective sample:选择性样本/片面性样本（首先质疑不随机，随机也要大范围内随机，不能在小范围内随机;样本数量少,不够随机.）Unless the surveyor samples a sufficient number ofand does so randomly across the entire spectrum, the survey results are not reliable to gaugegenerally. Quantity of sample:只有绝对值、相对值，没有数量insufficient (普遍性、代表性)The number of samples/respondents, itself, does not ensure/guarantee representativeness. For example, if the sample includes/involves only, then the results would no doubt suggest. 被访者是否说了真话，这是个小错误，可攻击也可不攻击（结果是否匿名、被访者是否有利益关系，比如衣服、价格We are not informed whether the survey responses are anonymous, even confidential. If they were not,）2调查结果类错误 数据是否有意义,数据是否含糊。The argument tells us that many/a number of.However the speaker fails to indicate the percentage of.So this evidence is far too vague to be meaningful.The author fails to provide information regarding the absolute number of . 调查者错误researcher:应是中立机构或第三方(we, cross-bencher, non-aligned) 调查时间类错误,若不是close enough 就有问题;若有ago就有问题(according to a recent survey 不要攻击)When samples are used to make general claims about a particular group, the sample should be gathered close enough in time to the generalization.A threshold paramount problem is that the argument neglects to indicate how recently the survey was actually conducted/ carried out.补充词汇:名词:survey, research, study, poll, investigation, statistics, datasample, specimen, sampling, questionnaire, accidental sampling, random sample, class sampling, randomnessquantity, quality, absolute value, percentage, proportionvalidity, statistical, validityrange, spectrum, scope动词: select, choose, sample indicate, investigate, examine, scrutinize, evaluate, assess apply to, represent, stand for, embody其它: valid, authentic random, quantitative, statistical, representative, characteristic, typical far-ranging广泛的,普遍的, comprehensive, extensive generally, universally二、充分与必要条件类错误sufficient evidence and necessary condition充分条件：A发生导致D发生，A为D的充分条件攻击：不否认A是导致D发生的一个原因，但D的发生不光与A有关，还要B和C跟A一起起作用，对A我们要采取肯定的态度（once）必要条件：A不发生导致D不发生，A为D的必要条件攻击:我发现A未发生，D发生，D发生是由于B或C，对A我们采取否定态度（only without necessarily）The argument assumes to hastily that _will necessarily/sufficiently result in the behavior that the argument predicts. Perhaps, _.Moreover, _.The fact that A is not sufficient for the prediction that B_. The editors recommendation depends on the assumption that no factors other than A result in D. However, common sense informs that this assumption is a poor/indefensible one. A myriad of other factors, including B or C might be the cause of D. To be specific, _. Without ruling out these and other possible causes, the editor cannot justifiably conclude that only by A, can D.补充词汇:名词: Condition，prerequisite，requirement，sufficiency，aftermath， outcome，result，consequence动词：Constitute，establish，suffice 导致：Cause，raise，conduce，induce，incur，trigger，breed，initiate， ferment，provoke，ignite导致短语：Contribute to/lead to/give rise to/give birth to/account for/be responsible for/be blamed for/result in/bring about/on/attributeto/oweto/indebtto/draw down(draw on)/be accompanied by表示起因于的短语：Result from/arise from/stem from/derive from/be parallel to(A is parallel to B;A起因于B)/be connected with/be associated with/be related to表示因为的介词短语：Because of/as a result of 因为(as a result 因此)/due to/owing to/on account of/thanks to/but for/in view of/by virtue of/for the sake of三、因果关系类错误cause and effect fallacies1、无因果类错误non sequitur（与条件类错误类似），但是它的时态一般是已经发生的两件事情。例如：题目中说A引起了D的发生，但是事实上是D的发生不是由A引起的，很可能是由B或C引起的。The arguer fails to establish the causal relationship between A and D. It is highly possible that other factors contribute to D. For instance, D might have resulted from B; it is presumptuous to suggest that A was responsible for D.2、时序性因果错误（先发生的是后发生的条件）Based on the fact that A occurred after D, the editor infers that D should be responsible for A. However, the sequence of these events, in itself, does not suffice to prove that the earlier development caused the later one. It might have resulted from some other events instead: B and C (to name a few).Without ruling out scenarios such as these, the editor can not establish a cause-and-effect relationship between A and B upon which the editors recommendation depends.3、同时性因果错误concurrence标志词：Meanwhile, also, with, during, under, over, parallelThe author commits a fallacy of concurrence in assuming thatThe argument observes a correlation between A and B, and then concludes that the former is the cause of the latter. However, the argument fails to rule out other possible explanations for B. For example, _. Any of these factors might lead to B. Without ruling out all other factors it is unfair to conclude that A is responsible for B.四、范围变化类错误changing scope任何整体内部的各个个体都有差异，这种错误一定要看引言句：题干引言和正文的纵向范围变大或者缩小；正文内部的论据和结论之间存在范围的变化。（偷换概念、个体放大到整体、整体缩小到个体、平均值错误）1、偷换概念攻击A threshold problem involves the definition of A. The arguer fails to define this critical term. If A is defined as B, then_is irrelevant of A, it is impossible to assess the strength effectiveness of the argument/remedy/approach.2、整体缩小到个体标志词：nationwide, statewide, throughout, overall, across, averageThe overall trends in the nation may not reflect the conditions of the specific area where(反驳). One problem with the argument is that it assumes that the nationwide statistics about _apply to_. (Characteristics of a group apply to every member of that group), yet in this might not be the case, for a variety of possible reasons. Perhaps,_; or maybe_. Without ruling out such possibilities, the author can not justifiably conclude that_.3、个体放大到整体The argument rests on the assumption that (个体案例) typify nationwide(整体情况). Thus, lacking more comprehensive (marketing) information aboutnationwide, it is difficult to assess the merit of the memos recommendation.常用词：名词：Scope, localization, diversity, variety, individual, difference, unit, whole动词：Extend, expand, broaden, enlarge, spread, shrink, differentiate, and distinguish形容词：Overall, generally, extensive, entire, diverse, dissimilar, multiplex五、考虑问题不全面incomplete thought1、没有考虑正负得失Failing to weigh the advantage and disadvantage thoroughly 正负advantage & disadvantage得失profit & cost2、没有考虑到结论的可行性Failing to consider the feasibility of the conclusionThe authors conclusion that_ is unwarranted. Profit is a factor relating to not only revenue, but also cost. It is entirely possible that the cost of A or other cost associated with B and C, will offset, even outweigh the revenue. Besides, a myriad of other unexpected occurrences, such as unfavorable economic depression, might prevent _from being as profitable as the argument predicts.词汇归纳:名词:Disadvantage, drawback, demerit, advantage, merit, value, worthiness, pros and cons, revenue, income, proceeds, profit, margin, gain, cost, feasibility动词：Consider, take in to account, weigh compare形容词：All-round, all-sided, one-sided, unilateral六、非此即彼类错误false dilemma原理：1、在一个现象中，作者会提出两个原因来解释，然后否定其中一个，所以不是A就是B，作者忽略了真正的原因C；2、作者认为他们两个原因exclusive，而AB可能都是原因。标志词：Either orEven assuming A is not the reason for C, the author falsely assumes that C must be attributable to B. This “either or” argument is fallacious in that it ignores other possible causes of C. Perhaps D, or perhaps E.The editorial seems to make two irreconcilable claims. One is that A; the other is B. However, this assumption presents a false dilemma. Since A and B are not necessarily mutually exclusive attentive.七、时间外推类错误过去无法推现在和将来；现在也无法预测将来攻击原理：The author claims that(将来)，because (过去/现在). The assumption is unwarranted because rarely do things remain the same over extend period of time. There are likely all kinds of difference between (past) and (future). For example (future); however,(past). Any of these scenarios, if true, would serve to undermine the claim that_.词汇归纳：名词：Trend, tendency, direction, fixedness, diversification动词：Forecast, anticipate, expect, continue, remain, alter, inflect, shift, and transfer八、类比类错误原理：作者说A做了一个做法取得了成功，因此B这个地方也要效仿也能取得成