EquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy(国际经贸高级.ppt

TEXTGrowingInequalityThedegreeofincomeinequalityvariesgreatlyfromregiontoregion ItisgreatestinLatinAmericaandsub SaharanAfrica andlowestinEasternEurope otherregionsfallbetweenthesetwoextremes InLatinAmerica theaverageGinicoefficient themostcommonlyusedmeasureofinequality with0representingperfectequalityand1representingtotalinequality isalmost0 5 TheaverageGinicoefficientinsub SaharanAfricaisslightlylower butthereisconsiderablevariationamongcountries IncomeinequalityhasaregionaldimensioninbothAfricaandLatinAmerica averageincomesaresignificantlyhigherinurbanareasthaninruralareas UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy Inrecentyears incomeinequalityhasbeenincreasinginalargenumberofcountries Thisincreasehasbeenmoststrikinginthetransitioneconomies wheretheaverageGinicoefficienthadbeenaround0 25untilthelate1980s bythemid 1990s ithadrisentomorethan0 30 Whilethismaynotappeartobealargeincrease itisquitesignificantfortheshortperiodbeingassessed Ginicoefficientstendtoberelativelystableincountriesoverlongperiods IncomeinequalityhasalsoincreasedinseveralmajorindustrialcountriesandisbeginningtoincreaseinsomeEastAsiancountries UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy Muchofthedebateaboutincomedistributionhascenteredonwageearnings Butwagestellonlypartofthestory Thedistributionofwealth and byimplication capitalincome ismoreconcentratedthanlaborincome InAfricaandLatinAmerica unequalownershipoflandhasbeenidentifiedasanimportantfactorintheoveralldistributionofincome Furthermore inrecentyears therehasbeenashiftfromlabortocapitalincome includingincomefromselfemployment inmanycountries Intransitioncountries thisshifthasbeendueprimarilytotheprivatizationofstate ownedassets Theanalysisoftrendsinnonlaborincomeincountrieswithwelldevelopedcapitalmarketsandpensionfundsismorecomplicated Pensionfundsandotherfinancialinstitutionsreceiveasizableportionofcapitalincome andtheshareofcapitalincomeintotalhouseholdincometypicallychangesoverthelifecycleoftheindividualsineachhousehold UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy IsGlobalizationtheCause Globalizationhaslinkedthelabor product andcapitalmarketsofeconomiesaroundtheworld Increasedtrade capitalandlabormovements andtechnologicalprogresshaveledtogreaterspecializationinproductionandthedispersionofspecializedproductionprocessestogeographicallydistantlocations Developingcountries withtheirabundantsupplyofunskilledlabor haveacomparativeadvantagerelativetodevelopedcountriesintheproductionofunskilled labor intensivegoodsandservices Asaresult productionoftheseproductsindevelopedcountrieshascomeunderincreasedcompetitivepressure Economictheorytellsusthisshouldapplydownwardpressureontherelativecompensationofunskilledworkersindevelopedcountriesandupwardpressureonthecompensationoftheircounterpartsindevelopingcountries UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy Basedonthistheory someauthorshaveclaimedthatglobalizationistoblameforgrowingincomeinequalityindevelopedcountries Othersarguethatthewideninggapbetweenthewagesofskilledworkersandunskilledworkersinthedevelopedcountriesisduetothedevelopmentanddispersionofskill intensivetechnologiesratherthantoincreasedtrade Severalempiricalstudieshavetriedtogaugetherelativeimportanceofbothtradeandtechnologicalprogressinthedeclineofrelativewagesofunskilledworkersindevelopedcountries Estimatesofthecontributionofincreasedtradetothetotalincreaseofthewagedifferentialbetweenunskilledandskilledworkersrangefromnegligibleto50percent Thislargevariationisafunctionofthestructureofproductionindevelopedcountriesandtheshareoftheirlabormarketthatisindirectcompetitionwithlow skilledworkersindevelopingcountries UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy Thedebateregardingtheeffectofglobalizationonincomedistributionindevelopingcountriesmirrorsthedebateondevelopedcountries Although allotherthingsbeingequal increasedopennesswouldbeexpectedtoincreasetherelativewagesofunskilledworkersindevelopingcountries experiencehasbeenmixed EvidencesuggeststhattherelativewagesofunskilledworkersincreasedinEastAsiancountriesinthe1960sand1970sbutdecreasedinLatinAmericainthe1980sandearly1990s TherearetwopossibleexplanationsforwhywagesfellinLatinAmerica first theopeningupofdevelopingAsiancountries Bangladesh China India Indonesia andPakistan whereunskilledlaborisevenmoreabundant second theavailabilityofnewproductiontechnologiesthatarebiasedtowardskilledlabor UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy Theeffectglobalizationhasonincomedistributionseemstobedeterminedtosomeextentbyacountry slevelofdevelopmentandthetechnologiesavailabletoit Similarly exposuretointernationalcompetitionmaychangeinstitutions forexample tradeunions andtherebyaffectincomedistribution Someobserverscontendthat becauseofthemobilityofcapital globalizationlimitstheabilityofunionworkerstoachievea unionwagepremium thusdecreasingthebargainingpowerofworkersvis viscapital Inaddition globalizationmayleadtosharpshort runchangesinthedistributionofincome asbarrierstotradearereducedandthedistributionofproductionisreallocatedamongsectors UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy Itisoftenarguedthatglobalizationmakesitmoredifficultforgovernmentstoimplementequitablepolicies Increasinglymobilecapitalandlaborhavelimitedtheabilityofgovernmentstolevytaxesandtransferincometothoseaffectedbyglobalization Totheextentthatcapitalismoremobilethanlabor theincidenceoftaxestofinancesafetynetsforthoseaffectedbyglobalizationisshiftedtolabor PolicyResponsesTheextenttowhichcountrieshavefocusedonpromotingequityandthestrategiestheyhaveadoptedvarywidely Somecountrieshaveactivelypromotedtheuseofpublicresourcestoraisetheincomesofthoseonthebottomtieroftheincomedistribution Othershavefocusedonthetoppercentilesbylevyinghighlyprogressivetaxes Yetothers concernedthatpoliciestargetingthepoormayresultineconomicinefficienciesanddistortionsthatretardgrowth havetakenanindirectapproach seekingtohelplow incomefamiliesbystimulatingoveralleconomicgrowth UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy InLatinAmericaduringthe1980s theprimarygoalofpolicymakerswasachievingsustainablegrowth andaviablebalanceofpaymentsandstructuralreformswereseenascriticaltoachievingthisgoal Growthhasalsobeenoneoftheprimarygoalsofthetransitioneconomies buttheirstrategieshaveincludedpoliciesaimedathelpinggroupslikelytobehurtbythetransition Suchpolicieshaveincludedthedistributionofsharesofprivatizedenterprises theadaptationofsocialpolicyinstrumentstoprotectvulnerablegroups andtheestablishmentofsocialsafetynets forexample targetedsubsidies cashcompensationinlieuofsubsidies severancepayandretrainingforretrenchedpublicsectoremployees andpublicworksprograms However thelackofbudgetaryresourceshasmadeimplementationofthesepoliciesdifficult UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy Fiscalpolicy taxationandspending isagovernment smostdirecttoolforredistributingincome inboththeshortandthelongrun However theeffectofredistributivetaxpolicies especiallyinthefaceofglobalization hasbeensmall Policymakersshouldfocusondevelopingabroadlybased efficient andeasilyadministeredtaxsystemwithmoderatemarginalrates Althoughtheprimarygoalofthetaxsystemshouldbetopromoteefficiency policymakersalsoneedtoconsiderhowtodistributetheburdenoftaxationsothesystemisseenasfairandjust Theexpendituresideofthebudgetoffersbetteropportunitiesthanthetaxsideforredistributingincome Thelinkbetweenincomedistributionandsocialspending especiallyspendingonhealthandeducation throughwhichgovernmentscaninfluencetheformationanddistributionofhumancapital isparticularlystrong andpublicinvestmentinthehumancapitalofthepoorcanbeanefficientwaytoreduceincomeinequalityoverthelongrun UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy Theamountofresourcesgovernmentscanandshoulddevotetosocialexpendituresdependsonvariousfactors includingthetax to GDPratioandtheresourcesdevotedtootherspending Publicexpendituresshoulddisplaceprivateexpendituresonlywhentheyyieldhighersocialbenefits Priorityshouldbegiventothemostproductivepublicexpenditures andunproductivepublicexpenditures forexample excessivemilitaryspending wagesforanover staffedcivilservice andbudgetarytransferstoinefficientpublicenterprises shouldbecurtailed Civilservicereformandtheprivatizationofservicesthatcanbebetterprovidedbytheprivatesector especiallyifaccompaniedbyareallocationofexpenditurestothesocialsectors arelikelytobebothgrowth andequity enhancing particularlyindevelopingcountries wherepublicsectoremployeescomeprimarilyfromthemiddle andupper middle incomeclasses UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy Outlaysonhealthandeducationcanimprovetheexistingpatternofincomedistribution dependingtoalargeextentontheirallocationwithinsectorsandwhoreceivesthebenefits Studiesshowthatspendingonbasichealthcareandprimaryeducationisfarmoreeffectiveinreachingthepoorthanspendingonhighereducationorhospital basedcurativecare theformerreducesdisparitiesinhumancapitalacrossincomegroupsandcandecreaseincomeinequalityinthelongrun see PublicSpendingonHumanDevelopment bySanjeevGupta BenedictClements andErwinTiongsoninthisissue Studiesalsoshowthat incountrieswithoutsomeformofhealthriskpooling seriousillnessesarethesinglemostimportantfactordrivingfamiliesintopoverty UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy Althoughfiscalpolicyisusuallyviewedastheprincipalvehicleforassistinglow incomegroupsandthoseaffectedbyreformprograms anumberofcountrieshaveintroducedspecificlabormarketpoliciesinanefforttoinfluenceincomedistribution therationalebeingthatrelativewagesexertastronginfluenceonoverallincomeinequality ManyEuropeancountrieshaveoptedforhighminimumwages generousunemploymentbenefits andawiderangeofjob protectionmeasures Althoughthesepoliciescanresultinrigidities advocatesmaintainthattheyhelpachieveasociallydesirableredistributionofincome whileopponentsarguethattheydiscouragenewinvestmentanddampenjobcreationandgrowth TheUnitedStates whichhasoptedformoreflexiblelabormarkets hasachievedhighemploymentlevels butthecostmaybegreaterincomeinequality Tomitigatethepotentialeffectofmarketflexibilityonlow wageworkers theUnitedStateshasintroducedwagesubsidiesthat UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy simultaneouslyredistributeincomeandpromoteemployment Giventhepotentiallylargeimpactoflabormarketpoliciesonearnings thesecompetingvisionsofthelabormarketarecentraltothedebateoverincomeinequalityinmanydevelopingandnewlyindustrializedcountries Governmentscanalsoindirectlyaffectincomelevelsanddistributionthroughmonetarypolicyandtheiroverallmacroeconomicstance Forexample highinflationtendstocurtaileconomicgrowthandincreaseincomeinequality Tradeliberalization especiallywhenitoccursindevelopingcountriesthathavehadrestrictivetradepolicies suchastaxationofagriculturalexportsandprotectivetariffsonimports mayboosteconomicgrowthandleadtomoreequitableconditions Currencydevaluationsmayalsohaveimplicationsforequity particularlyinlow incomecountries wherethepoorareoftenconcentratedintheagriculture intensiveexportsectorandmiddle andupper incomeurbandwellerstendtobemoredependentonimports UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy Anotherimportantissueiswhethergovernmentsshouldfocusonoutcomes suchasdecreasingthenumberofpeoplelivinginpoverty oronensuringthatallmembersofsocietyhaveequalopportunities Inextremecasesofincomeinequality outcomesareclearlycritical Inothercases settingupalevelplayingfieldmaybeallthatisnecessary andgreateremphasiscanbeplacedonpoliciesthatfacilitatemobilitybetweenincomeclassesandonensuringthatincomeandwealthareacquiredjustlyandfairly Measuresgovernmentscantaketopromoteequalityofopportunityincludederegulatingtheeconomy settingupstrong accountableinstitutions includingawell functioningjudicialsystem reducingopportunitiesforcorruptpractices curbingcorruptioncandirectlyreduceincomeinequality becausethegainsfromcorruptpracticestendtobecapturedbythewell to do andprovidingadequateaccesstohealthandeducationservices UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy Governmentsseekingtoimplementequity orientedpoliciesfaceanumberofobstacles Firstandforemostisthefinancingrequired highlevelsofspendingontargetedprogramsmaynotbeconsistentwithasustainablemacroeconomicframework Second governmentsinmanydevelopingcountries wherealargeshareofthepopulationisengagedinruralandinformalsectoractivities maybeunabletoreachthemostvulnerablegroups Theruralandinformalsectorsmayhavelimitedinteractionwithformalsectorinstitutions includingthegovernment makingthedeliveryofgovernmentassistance forexample cashtransfers problematic Inasimilarvein alackofadministrativecapacitymayhamperredistributiveefforts forexample taxevasionisasevereproblemincountrieswithweaktaxadministration makingitdifficultforgovernmentstousethetaxsystemasavehicletofinanceredistributivepolicies Politicalconstraints low incomegroupstypicallyhavelesspoliticalpowerthanother UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy interestgroups mayimpedeeffortstoreallocatespendingtowardthepoororredistributelandorotherassetstothem Legalimpedimentsmayalsopreventgovernmentsfromtakingmeasurestopromoteequity forexample constitutionalrulesonrevenuesharingmaylimittheamountofresourcesacentralgovernmentcanallocatetoredistributivepolicies excerptedfromFinance Development September1998 UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy Exercises TranslatethefollowingintoEnglish usingthewordsorphrasesinthetext 1 衡量收入分配的最常用的指标 themostcommonlyusedmeasuresofincomedistribution 2 从劳动力市场向资本市场的转移 theshiftfromlabourtocapitalmarkets 3 生产专业化和专业化生产过程的扩散 specializationinproductionandthedispersionofspecializedproductionprocesses UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy 4 熟练工与非熟练工之间日益拉大的工资差距 5 偏向于技术劳动力的新生产技术 newproductiontechniquesbiasedtowardskilledlabor 6 阻碍增长的经济无效率和扭曲 economicinefficiencyanddistortionsretardinggrowth 7 可持续增长和可行的收支政策 sustainablegrowthandaviablebalance of paymentspolicy thewideninggapbetweenthewagesofskilledworkersandthoseofunskilledworkers UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy 8 具有广泛基础的 有效而易于管理的税收体系 9 减少不同收入集团人力资本的明显差异 reducedisparitiesinhumancapitalacrossincomegroups 10 与宏观经济规划相一致的既定项目 targetedprogramsconsistentwiththemacroeconomicframework 11 关于财政收入分配的宪法原则 constitutionalrulesonrevenuesharing abroadly based efficientandeasilyadministeredtaxsystem UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy 12 通过解除经济的规定管制来促进机会平等 13 取代津贴的现金补偿 cashcompensationinlieuofsubsidies 14 刺激公共资源利用和整体经济增长 stimulatetheuseofpublicresourcesandtheoveralleconomicgrowth 15 采取有效措施促进就业和公平 takeeffectivemeasurestopromoteemploymentandequity topromoteequalityofopportunitiesthroughderegulatingeconomy UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy TranslatethefollowingsentencesintoEnglish 1 关于收入分配的大部分辩论集中在工资收入上 它被认为是整体收入分配的一个重要因素 但在非洲和拉丁美洲 不平等的土地所有权是一个不可忽略的因素 centeron Muchofthedebateaboutincomedistributionhascenteredonwageearnings whichhasbeenidentifiedasanimportantfactorintheoveralldistributionofincomes ButinAfricaandLatinAmerica unequalownershipoflandisafactorthatcannotbeignored UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy 2 全球化将全世界各经济体的劳动力 产品和资本市场连接起来 并间接导致生产专业化和专业化生产过程向地理位置遥远地区扩散 dispersion Globalizationhaslinkedthelabor productandcapitalmarketsoftheeconomiesaroundtheworldandhasindirectlyledtogreaterspecializationinproductionandthedispersionofspecializedproductionprocessestogeographicallydistantlocations UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy 3 尽管财政政策被视为帮助低收入人群和受改革计划影响的人们的主要工具 许多国家采取了具体的劳动力市场政策来试图影响收入分配 inaneffortto Althoughfiscalpoliciesareusuallyviewedastheprincipalvehicleforassistinglow incomegroupsandthoseaffectedbyreformprograms quiteanumberofcountrieshaveadoptedspecificlabormarketpoliciesinanefforttoinfluenceincomedistribution UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy 4 政府所能采取的促进机会均等的措施包括 取消对经济的规定管制 建立包括运作良好的司法体系在内的强有力的 负责任的机构 减少腐败行为的机会 提供获得健康和教育服务的充足机会等 deregulate Measuresgovernmentscantaketopromoteequalityofopportunitiesincludederegulatingtheeconomy settingupstrongandresponsibleinstitutions includingawell functioningjudicialsystem reducingopportunitiesforcorruptpractices andprovidingadequateaccesstohealthandeducationservices UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy 5 另一个重要问题是政府是否应该关注结果 比如减少贫困人数 或保证每个人都有公平的机会 ensure Anotherimportantissueiswhethergovernmentsshouldfocusonoutcomes suchasdecreasingthenumberofpeoplelivinginpoverty orensuringthatallmembersofsocietyhaveequalopportunities UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy PutthefollowingpassageintoEnglish 有一种关于财富分配的理论表明 不合理的分配和腐败是造成收入水平不公的主要原因 这一理论认为 财富要经历4个分配阶段 市场 政府 非政府组织 以及主要表现为腐败的非法活动 通常第一个分配阶段 市场 会导致资源分布不均 而这应该由第二个分配阶段 即政府 来纠正 在第三个阶段 财富的分配是通过非政府部门的捐赠来实现的 捐款是以慈善活动的形式赠予穷人的 接着便是对财富的非法掠夺 如抢劫 贪污 逃税和贿赂 这些对社会的公平和稳定所造成的伤害是巨大的 而且是无法测量的 UnitNineShouldEquityBeaGoalofEconomicPolicy Onetheoryonwealthdistributionindicatesthatirrationaldistributionandcorruptionarethemajorreasonsfortheunevenincomelevel Accordingtothistheory wealthgoesthroughfourstagesofdistribution themarket thegovernment non governmentalorganizationsandunlawfulactivities mainlycorruption Usuallythefirststageofdistribution themarket willresultinanunevenspreadofresources whichshouldberedressedbytheseconddistributionstage thegovernment Inthe