文献翻译——使用酒精要注意浓度

外文文献资料NotethattheconcentrationofalcoholuseMedicinalalcohol(ethanol)isamedicalunitandthefamilymedicinechestofessentialmedicinesisoneofthemostcommonlyusedtopicalpreparations.Notably,thedifferentusesrequiredifferentalcoholconcentrations.(1)95%ofthealcoholusedasafuelMedicalunitsoftenrequiretheuseofalcohollamp,alcoholstove,litlaboratoryforthepreparationofreagentsordrugsofheating,flamecanalsobeasmalltemporarydisinfectionofmedicaldevices.(2)2.70%-75%alcoholforsterilizationForincludingskindisinfection,sterilizationofmedicaldevices,suchasiodineiniodine.Somepeoplethinkthatthehigherthealcoholconcentration,thebetterdisinfectioneffect,thisiswrong.Theroleofalcoholdisinfectionofbacteriainvivocoagulationproteins,whichkillbacteria.Butalcoholcanandtheformationofaprotectivefilmtopreventalcoholintothebodyofbacteria,andthereforecannotcompletelykillthebacteria.Ifthealcoholconcentrationisbelow70%,althoughthebacteriacanenterthebody,butitcannotbethebodysprotincoagulation,isalsonotabletokillthebacteria.Only70%-75%alcoholthatisabletosuccessfullyenterintothebacterialbody,butalsoeffectivelycoagulationproteinsinbacteria,whichcankillthebacteria.With70%-75%alcoholdisinfectionofmedicalinstrumentssoakingmethodshouldbeused,nolessthan30minutes;applicationafterimmersiondisinfectionofsterilesalinetoavoidresidualalcoholontheinstrumenttostimulatethebodystissues.Becausealcoholcankillbacteria,sporesandvirusescannotbekilled,somedicalinjectionsorskindisinfectionpriortosurgeryisoftenbettertouseiodine.Inordertoreducelong-termstimulationofiodineontheskin,usuallyafterdisinfectionwithiodine,with75%alcoholoffiodineSincealcoholhasapungent,75%alcoholcanbeusedforskindisinfection,butnotforlargemucosaandwounddisinfection.(3)40%-50%alcoholforpreventingmattressLong-termbedriddenpatientswithsoreback,waist,hipsduetoprolongedpressurecanleadtobedsores,anddifficulttohealbedsoresonceformed;itspreventiveapproachistoturnoverground,groundscrubandwashmassage.Massage,thenurseswillbeasmallamountof40%-50%ofthealcoholintothehandsofpatientsevenlymassagepressureareas,inordertoachievethepromotionoflocalbloodcirculation,thepurposeofpreventingtheformationofbedsores.(4)25%-50%alcoholtophysicalfeverInadditiontodrugtherapyinpatientswithhighfever,themostsimple,effectiveandsafemethodistousephysicalcoolingmethodstocool25%-50%alcoholspongebath.Whenscrubbingtheskinofpatientswithalcoholcannotonlyirritatetheskinvasodilationinpatientswithhighfeve,increaseskincoolingcapacity;alsobecauseofitsvolatility,canabsorbandtakeawayalotofheat,sothetemperaturedrop.Thespecificmethodis:asmallgauzeorasofttowelmoistenedwithalcohol,wipegentlytwisttothesemipatientsneck,chest,armpits,legsandhandsheart.Bathrubbingalcoholconcentrationisnottoohigh,otherwisethelarge-scaleuseofahighconcentrationofalcoholmayirritatetheskin,theskintoabsorblargeamountsofwater.Medicalalcoholtomedicalinstitutionsmustbuy,mustnotmisuseindustrialalcohol;industrialalcoholbecausenotonlycontainsmoreimpuritie,italsocontainstoxicsubstances(suchasmethanol).Again,alcoholisflammabledangerousgoods,itisnecessarytopayattentiontowhenyousavethedark,awayfromheat,sealingintheshade,soasnottoreducetheconcentrationofvolatile;payattentiontoandawayfromthefireappliancestoavoidfire.46countrieshavedevelopedtheirownlegislation,thedefinitionofdrivingbasedonbloodalcoholconcentrationisaffected.Undertheselaws,regardlessofbehavioralevidenceofdamage,ifheorsheisthebloodalcoholconcentrationofmorethanoneobjectivecriteri,thispersonwillbeconvicted,atpresent,fortynationalstandardof100mg/dL,giveninfivecountries80mg/dl.32countrieshaveenactedlawsonadministrativelicenserevocationitself,tothosefoundinthebloodalcoholconcentrationinexcessofthedriverorrefusetoacceptchemicaltestingwillbeautomaticallyrevokeddriverslicense.Therefore,fordrunkendrivingprosecutionbasedprimarilyontheresultsofthechemicaltest.However,theimplementationofthelawfordrivingviolationsarestillheavilydependentonbehavioralobservationsratherthanmeasurementsalcoholconcentrationintheblood.InarecentpaperdetaileddescriptionoftheconceptualadvancesineffortstocontrolthedamagemadebytheWallerimprovedmethodspecifiedforthetestdriver,asanexampleoftechnologicalprogress,thefuturewillmakeanimportantcontributiontothedamagecontrol.EvidencefromNewSouthWales,Australia,emphasizingthegeneraldeterrentvalueofdrivingpeoplefrequentbreathtests.Whenthedriverofawiderangeofroutineuseofportablebreathtestisfiledtestequipment,trafficfatalitiesdroppedby23percent,sostrikingisthatthisapproachtoreducealcohol-relatedtrafficscourgeofevidence,oftenabreathtesttobecomedrunkfromtheU.S.SurgeonGeneraldrivingaproposalseminar.Althoughtheprecisepreliminarybreathtestequipmentinthepastdecade,havebeenprovidedtolawenforcementofficials,manypolicedepartmentstoadoptapolicyonlyafterthecompletionoffieldworkemployedtoconfirmtheimpressionthatthepersonconcerned,accordingtowhichthereisareasonablethearrest.Asaresult,drinkingdriversmayavoiddetection,eveniftheyhavedirectcontactwithpoliceofficers.1985studyfoundthat52percentoflegaldrinkingcheckpointinsoberdriverswereaskedthepoliceofficerwasnotarrested.Otherstudieshavefoundthatevenonlyafewbloodalcoholconcentrationabovethelegallimitfordrivingweredetectedduringaroutinesobrietycheckpoints.Ifdriversperceiveviolationofthelawcannotbereliablydetected,drunkdrivinglawsshadowforcewillbegreatlyreduced.Recentsurveyevidencefromlate-nightroadsidedisplay,althoughnodrinkingdriversthinksobertestisaneffectivewaytoarrestdrunkdrivers,butonly36percentmorethanthelegallimitofbloodalcoholconcentrationofdriversbelievethatiftheyareforcedtostopinfrontofbarricadesdownbecauseofdrunkdrivingwillbearrested.Obviously,thesedriversbelievetheycanavoiddetection.Thestudysomeevidencethatsuchdriversarelikelytohavefirst-handevidencetosupportthisconclusion.Asmorecountriestendtoreducetheirownlimitations.SCMIntroductionThatchipmicrocomputerSCM(Single-ChipMicrocomputer),alsoknownastheMCU(Microcontroller),isthecentralprocessor,memory,timer/counter(Timer/Counter),avarietyofinputandoutputinterfacesareallintegratedinanintegratedcircuitchipmicrocomputerson.Comparedwiththeapplicationofthegeneral-purposePCmicroprocessors,itismoreemphasisonself-supply(noexternalhardware)andcostsavings.Itsbiggestadvantageissmallsize,canbeplacedinsidetheinstrument,butasmallamountofmemory,input-outputinterfaceissimple,lowfunctionality.Becauseofitsveryrapiddevelopment,theolddefinitionofSCMcannotmeet,soinmanyapplicationsisknownasawiderrangeofmicrocontrollers;duetothesingle-chipmicrocomputeroftenusedwhenthecontrollerisalsoknownassinglechipmicrocontroller,butnowinmainlandChinaarestillmanyusethetermsingle-chipinthetitle.AnoverviewofthevastmajoritynowarebasedmicrocontrollervonNeumannarchitecture,thisstructureclearlydefinesfourbasicpartsrequiredforembeddedsystems:acentralprocessorcore,programmemory(ROMorflashmemory),thedatamemory(RAM),oneormoretimer/timer,andperipheraldevices,andtoextendthecommunicationresourceinput/outputport-allofwhichareintegratedonasingleintegratedcircuitchip.SpeakdifferentMCUandgeneral-chipcentralprocessingunitisveryeasybecausetheformergeneralwiththemostcompactexternalsupportchipsmadeworkcomputer.ThiscanbeeasilyimplantedintheSCMsystemofinternalcontrolsofthedevice.Inrecentyears,foruseondifferentinstructionanddatawordwidthandincreasethespeedoftheprocessorpipelineHarvardarchitectureinthemicrocontroller(Microcontrollers)andDSPhavegraduallybeenwidelyused.Traditionalmicroprocessorisnotallowedtodoso.ItMCUtocompletethework,itmustbeconnectedtosomeotherchips.Forexample,becausethereisnodataon-chipmemory,itisnecessarytoaddsomeRAMmemorychip,althoughtheaddedmemorycapacityisveryflexible,butatleaststillhavetoadd,alsoneedtoaddalotofconnectionstotransferdatabetweenthechips.Forexample,atypicalsingle-chipclockgeneratorandrequiresonlyaminimalRAMandROMorEPROM,E2PROM)canworkinthesoftareandcrystal.Meanwhile,themicrocontrollerhasawealthofinputandwoutputdevices,suchasanalogtodigitalconverter(ADC),timers,serialportorotherserialcommunicationinterface(suchasI2C,SerialPeripheralInterface(SPI),ControllerAreaNetwork).Typically,theseintegratedinthedevicecanbeoperatedbyaspecialinstruction.MCUclockfrequencyisusuallylowerthanthecontemporariesofcomputerchips,butitisinexpensive.Providesufficientprogrammemory,richon-chipinterfaces.Somearchitecturemicrocontrollermanymanufacturers,suchas8051,Z80series.Somemodernmicrocontrollersupportssomebuilt-inhigh-levelprogramminglanguage,suchasBASIClanguage.Themediansingle-chipisdividedinto4,8accordingtothebuswidth,single-chip,16-bitand32-bitmicrocontrollers.4microcontrollerusedforrefrigerators,washingmachines,microwaveovensandotherappliancescontrol;8,16-bitmicrocontrollerismainlyusedforgeneralcontrolareas,generallydonotusetheoperatingsystem;32occasionsforcomplexprocessingnetworkoperations,suchasmultimediaprocessing,touseanembeddedoperatingsystemingeneral.CommonMicrochipsPICmicrocontrollerseriesofshipmentsofliveindustryleader;AtmelAVRseries51seriesandmanyspeciesbythebroadsupportsurface;TexasInstrumentsMSP430familyoflowpowerconsumptionisknownandcommonlyusedinmedicalelectronicsinstrumentation;RenesasMCUwidelyusedinJapan.ARMfamilyofmicrocontrollersAtmel(Atmel)AtmelAT91series(ARMTHUMBarchitecture)AT90series-AVR(AtmelNorwaydesign)AtmelAT89series(Intel8051/MCS51architecture)MARC4CypressMicroSystems(CypressMicrosystems)CY8C2xxxx(PSoC)FreescaleSemiconductor(Freescalesemiconductor)8-bit68HC05(CPU05)68HC08(CPU08)68HC11(CPU11)16-bit68HC12(CPU12)68HC16(CPU16)FreescaleDSP56800(DSPcontroller)32-bitFreescale683XX(CPU32)MPC500MPC860(PowerQUICC)MPC8240/8250(PowerQUICCII)MPC8540/8555/8560(PowerQUICCIII)Holtek(Holtek)HT48FXXFlashI/OtypeHT48RXXI/OtypeHT46RXXA/DtypeHT49RXXLCDtypeIntel(Intel)8-bit8XC42MCS48MCS51:Intel8051serieshasalonghistory,manycompatibleproducts,widelyused8xC25116-bitMCS96seriesMXS29632-biti960Microchip(Microchip)thePICmicrocontrollerfamily8-bit:PIC10PIC12PIC16PIC1816-bit:PIC24FPIC24HdsPIC30dsPIC3332bit:PIC32(usingtheMIPSM4Kcorearchitecture)NationalSemiconductor(nationalSemiconductor)COP8CR16NEC78KNXPSemiconductors(NXPSemiconductors,PhilipsSemiconductorsistosetupanewteambyPhilips)LPC2000LPC900LPC700Parallax,IncBASICStampRenesasRenesasTechnologyseriesMCURenesas16-bitsRenesas.M16CSeriesRenesasM32CSeriesRenesasR8CSeriesRenesasM16C/TinySeriesRenesasR8C/TinySeriesRenesasH8/TinySeriesSTMicroelectronics(STMicroelectronics)SyncMOSSyncMOSfullrangeofSCMtechnologySM59RXXA28-bits1T(RISC)SM59DXXG28-bits6T(ISP)SM59XX8-bits12T(ISP)SM89XX8-bits12T(Traditional8051)SM79XX8-bits12T(Customization)ZiLOGZ8Z86E02otherseriesmicrocontrollerAVRMCUMsp430microcontrollerseries8098,80196seriesMCUAT8P5XseriesMCUCZG8000seriesMCUseriesMCUSTCseriesSyncMOSMCUMCUMCUdevelopmentsoftwaredevelopmentingeneraluseassemblylanguageorC,ortheuseoflanguagessuchasBASICismoresuitableforbeginners,partoftheintegrateddevelopmentenvironmentsupportsC+.SCMsoftwaredebuggingneedtousemicrocontrollerdevelopmentoremulators.Withthedevelopmentoftechnology,nowtherearemanymicrocontrollercomesISP(OnlineProgramming),completelychangedthetraditionalpatternofdevelopment,willnotdamagethedevelopmentofthesystemchipmicrocontrollerpin,acceleratedtomarketandreducesR&Dcosts,shorteningthetimefromdesign,manufacturingtositecommissioningtime,simplifytheproductionprocess,greatlyimprovingtheefficiencyofsuchdevicescontainAT89Sseriesmicrocontroller,AVRmicrocontrollerseriesandsoon.KEILCPROTEUSProteussoftwareisthesoftwareofchoiceforbeginners,itisLabcenterElectronicsCompanyacommercialversionofthecircuitdesignandsimulationsoftware,whichincludesISIS,ARESandothersoftwaremodules,ARESPCBmoduleismainlyusedtocompletethedesign,ISISmoduleusedtocompletethecircuitdiagramofthelayoutandsimulation.ProteusVSMbasedsimulationsoftwaretechnologythatthebiggestdifferencewithothersoftwareisthebiggestadvantageisthatitcansimulatealargenumberofsinglechip,suchasMCS-51series,PICseries,etc.,andevenARMprocessorandsingle-chipperipheralcircuits,suchaskeyboard,LED,LCD,etc.,thesoftwarecomeswithanumberofcasesandextensivehelpfiles.中文翻译使用酒精要注意浓度药用酒精（乙醇）是医疗单位和家庭药箱的必备药品，是最常用的外用制剂之一。值得注意的是,不同用途的酒精要求不同的浓度。(1)95%的酒精用做燃料医疗单位常需使用酒精灯、酒精炉，点燃后用于配制化验试剂或药品制剂的加热，也可用其火焰临时消毒小型医疗器械。(2)70%-75%的酒精用于灭菌消毒用于包括皮肤消毒、医疗器械消毒、碘酒的脱碘等。有人以为，酒精浓度越高，消毒效果越好，这是错误的。酒精消毒的作用是凝固细菌体内的蛋白质，从而杀死细菌。但95%的酒精能将细菌表面包膜的蛋白质迅速凝固，并形成一层保护膜，阻止酒精进入细菌体内，因而不能将细菌彻底杀死。如果酒精浓度低于70%，虽可进入细菌体内，但不能将其体内的蛋白质凝固，同样也不能将细菌彻底杀死。只有70%-75%的酒精即能顺利地进入到细菌体内，又能有效地将细菌体内的蛋白质凝固，因而可彻底杀死细菌。用70%-75%的酒精消毒医疗器械应当用浸泡的方法，时间不得少于30分钟；浸泡消毒后应用无菌生理盐水冲洗，以免器械上的残余酒精刺激机体组织。因为酒精只能杀死细菌，不能杀死芽孢和病毒，所以，医疗注射或手术前的皮肤消毒常使用效果更好的碘酒。为了减少碘对皮肤的长期刺激，一般在用碘酒消毒后，用75%的酒精脱去碘。由于酒精具有一定的刺激性，75%的酒精可用于皮肤消毒，但不可用于黏膜和大创面的消毒。(3)40%-50%的酒精用于预防褥长期疮卧床患者的背、腰、臀部因长期受压可引发褥疮，而且褥疮一旦形成很难愈合；其预防的方法就是要勤翻身、勤擦洗、勤按摩。按摩时，护理人员会将少量40%-50%的酒精倒入手中，均匀地按摩患者受压部位，以达到促进局部血液循环，防止褥疮形成的目的。(4)25%-50%的酒精用于物理退热高烧患者除药物治疗外，最简易、有效、安全的降温方法就是用25%-50%酒精擦浴的物理降温方法。用酒精擦洗患者皮肤时，不仅可刺激高烧患者的皮肤血管扩张，增加皮肤的散热能力；还由于其具有挥发性，可吸收并带走大量的热量，使体温下降、症状缓解。具体方法是：将纱布或柔软的小毛巾用酒精蘸湿，拧至半干轻轻擦拭患者的颈部、胸部、腋下、四肢和手脚心。擦浴用酒精浓度不可过高，否则大面积地使用高浓度的酒精可刺激皮肤，吸收表皮大量的水分。医用酒精必须到医疗机构购买，切不可误用工业酒精；因为工业酒精中不仅含有较多的杂质，还含有有毒物质（例如甲醇）。再有，酒精是易燃的危险品，保存时既要注意避光、避热、密封放在阴凉处，以免挥发后浓度降低；又要注意远离火源和电器，以免发生火灾。四十六个国家已经制定自身立法，定义了驾驶依据血液中酒精浓度而受影响。根据这些法律，不管损害的行为证据，如果他或她血液的酒精浓度超过一个客观标准，这个人就会被定罪，目前，在四十个国家标准为100毫克/分升，在五个国家定为80毫克/分升。三十二个国家还颁布关于撤销行政执照自身的法律，对那些被发现血液中酒精浓度超标的司机或者拒绝接受化学测试的人将予以自动撤销驾驶执照。因此，对于醉酒驾驶的检举主要依据化学测试的结果。然而，目前对于违规驾驶法律的执行仍严重依赖行为观察而不是在血液中的酒精浓度测量值。在最近的详细说明对于伤害控制的概念性进步所作出的努力的论文中沃勒指明对于司机测试的改进的方法，作为技术进步的例子，将来会对伤害控制作出重要贡献。来自澳大利亚新南威尔士州的证据，强调了对驾驶的市民进行频繁的呼吸测试的一般威慑价值。当广泛常规的司机测试是使用便携式呼吸提起测试设备，交通死亡人数下降了23.所以引人注目的是这个减少酒精有关的交通灾祸方法的证据，经常呼气测试成为来自美国卫生总监酒后驾驶研讨会的一项建议。虽然精确的初步呼吸测试设备在过去的十年中，已提供给执法官员，许多警察部门采取了一项政策，只有在实地调查完成后才采用，以确认有关人员的印象，存在合理的根据而执行逮捕。结果，饮酒司机可能避免被发现，即使他们已经与警务人员直接接触。1985年的研究发现，52的合法饮酒的在清醒检验点被警方人员询问的司机没有被捕。其他的研究发现，甚至只有少数血液酒精浓度超过法定限制的开车的人在例行清醒检查站被检测。如果驾驶人员觉察到违反法律不能被可靠地检测到，醉酒驾驶法律的影力将会大打折扣。来自最近深夜路边调查证据显示，尽管没有喝酒的司机认为清醒检验是一种有效的逮捕醉酒司机的方法，然而只有36的血液酒精浓度超过法定限度的司机相信如果他们在路障前被迫停下来将会因为醉酒驾驶而被捕。显然，这些司机相信他们能够避免检测。上述研究中的某些证据表明，这样的司机很可能有第一手证据来支持这一结论。随着更多的国家趋向减少其本身的限制。单片机介绍单片机即单片微型计算机（Single-ChipMicrocomputer），又称单片机（Microcontroller），是把中央处理器、存储器、定时/计数器（Timer/Counter）、各种输入输出接口等都集成在一块集成电路芯片上的微型计算机。与应用在个人电脑中的通用型微处理器相比，它更强调自供应（不用外接硬件）和节约成本。它的最大优点是体积小，可放在仪表内部，但存储量小，输入输出接口简单，功能较低。由于其发展非常迅速，旧的单片机的定义已不能满足，所以在很多应用场合被称为范围更广的微控制器；由于单芯片微计算机常用于当控制器故又名singlechipmicrocontroller，但是目前在中国大陆仍多沿用“单片机”的称呼。概述绝大多数现在的单片机都是基于冯诺伊曼结构的，这种结构清楚地定义了嵌入式系统所必需的四个基本部分：一个中央处理器内核，程序存储器（只读存储器或者闪存）、数据存储器（随机存储器），一个或者更多的定时/计时器，还有用来与外围设备以及扩展资源进行通信的输入/输出端口所有这些都被集成在单个集成电路芯片上。说单片机与通用型中央处理单元芯片不同是因为前者一般很容易配合最小型的外部支持芯片制成工作计算机。这样就可以很容易的把单片机系统植入装置内部来控制装置了。近年来为了在指令和数据上使用不同的字宽，并提高处理器流水线速度，哈佛结构在单片机(Microcontrollers)和DSP也逐渐得到了广泛的应用。传统的微处理器是不允许这么做的。它要完成单片机的工作，就必须连接一些其他芯片。比如说，因为片上没有数据存储器，就必须要添加一些RAM的存储芯片，虽然所添加存储器的容量很灵活，但是至少还是要添加，另外还需要添加很多连线来传递芯片之间的数据。比如，一个典型的单片机只需要一个时钟发生器和很少的RAM和ROM(或者EPROM,E2PROM)就可以在软件和晶振下工作了。同时，单片机具有丰富的输入输出设备，像是模拟数字转换(ADC)，定时器，串口或者其他串行通讯接口(比如I2C，串行外围接口(SPI),控制器局域网)。通常，这些集成在内部的设备可以通过特殊的指令来操作。单片机时钟频率通常较同时代的计算机芯片低，但它价格低廉。提供充足的程序存储器、丰富的片上接口。某些架构的单片机生产厂商众多，例如8051系列、Z80系列。一些现代的单片机支持一些内建的高级编程语言，比如BASIC语言。单片机的位数根据总线的宽度，单片机又分为4位、8位、16位和32位单片机。4位单片机多用于冰箱、洗衣机、微波炉等家电控制中；8位、16位单片机主要用于一般的控制领域，一般不使用操作系统；32位用于网络操作、多媒体处理等复杂处理的场合，一般要使用嵌入式操作系统。常见的单片机微芯公司的PIC系列出货量居于业界领导者地位；Atmel的51系列及AVR系列种类众多，受支持面广；德州仪器的MSP430系列以低功耗闻名，常用于医疗电子产品及仪器仪表中；瑞萨单片机在日本使用广泛。ARM系列单片机Atmel（爱特梅尔公司）AtmelAT91series(ARMTHUMBarchitecture)AT90seriesAVR(Atm