英国文学史.docx

What is Sentimentalism? By the middle of the century, sentimentalism came into being as the result of a bitter discontent with social reality among the enlightened people. The sentimentalists continued to struggle against feudalism. But they sensed at the same time the contradictions in the process of capitalist development. Dissatisfied with reason, they appealed to sentiment. Sentimentalism turned to the countryside for its material, and so is in striking contrast to classicism. The appearance and development of sentimental poetry marks the midway in the transition from classicism to its opposite, romanticism in English poetry.what is the Enlightenment Movement? The Enlightenment Movement was a progressive Movement, which flourished in France and swept the whole Western Europe at the time. It was a furtherance of the Renaissance from the 14th to the 17th century. Its purpose was to enlighten the whole world with the light of modern philosophical and artistic ideas. The eighteenth century marked the beginning of an intellectual movement in Europe known as the Enlightenment Movement.What is Humanism?Humanism is a philosophical and ethical stance that emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively, and generally prefers critical thinking and evidence (rationalism, empiricism) over established doctrine or faith (fideism).In humanism，the welfare of human being is very important. It emphasizes the worth of life in this world and the dignity of human being.According to them it was against human nature to sacrifice the happiness of this life for an after life. They argued that man should be given full freedom to enrich their intellectual and emotional life. In religion, the H thinking was a relation against the narrow mindedness of the Catholic Church; they demanded the information of the church. In art and literature, instead of singing praise to God, they sang in praise of man and of the pursuit of happiness in this life. H shattered the shackles of spiritual bondage of mans mind by the Roman Catholic Church and opened his eyes to “a brave new world” in front of him.Humanism is both the keynote of the Renaissance and the intellectual liberation movement, associate with new attitude to ancient Greek and Latin literature. The humanists took interest in human life and human activities and gave expression to the new feeling of admiration for human beauty, human achievement.What is satire?Satire is a genre of literature, and sometimes graphic and performing arts, in which vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, ideally with the intent of shaming individuals, corporations, government or society itself, into improvement.What is Neo-classicism?Neo-classicism was a reaction against the intricacy and occasional obscurity, boldness and the extravagance of European literature of the late Renaissance, as seen for instance, in the works of the metaphysical. Infavor of simplicity, charity restraint regularity and good sense. The characteristics of neo-classicism can be summed up as follows: 1. People emphasized reason rather than emotion, form rather than content. 2. As reason was stressed, most of the writings of the age were didactic（迂腐的）and satirical.3. As elegance, correctness, appropriateness and restraint were preferred; the poet found closed couplet the only possible verse form for serious work. 4. It is almost exclusively a “town” poetry, catering to the interests of the “society” in great cities. 5. It is entirely wanting in all those elements that are related with the “romantic”.What is Classicism?Classicism implies (意味着) the revival (复苏) of the forms and traditions of the ancient world， a return to works of old Greek literature from Homer to Plato and Aristotle. But French classicism of the 17th century was not conscious of being a classical revival (并非古典主义的复苏)。 It intended to produce a literature， French to the core (以法语为中心)， which was worthy of (与相媲美) Greek and classical ideals. This neoclassicism (新古典主义) reached its climax in France in the 17th century.(代表：莫里哀和德国的歌德？席勒)Romanticism(浪漫主义) The term refers to the literary and artistic movements of the late 18th and early 19th century. Romanticism rejected the earlier philosophy of the Enlightenment, which stressed that logic and reason were the best response humans had in the face of cruelty, stupidity, superstition, and barbarism. Instead ,the Romantics asserted that reliance upon emotion and natural passions provided a valid and powerful means of knowing and a reliable guide to ethics and living.The Romantic movement typically asserts the unique nature of the individual, the privileged status of imagination and fancy, the value of spontaneity over “artifice” and “convention”, the human need for emotional outlets, the rejection of civilized corruption, and a desire to return to natural primitivism and escape the spiritual destruction of urban life Their writings are often set in rural, or Gothic settings and they show an obsessive concern with “innocent” characters-children, young lovers, and animals. The major Romantic poets included William Blake, William Wordsworth, John Keats , Percy Bysshe Shelley, and Lord Gordon Byron.指18世纪末，19世纪初发生的文学和艺术运动。该运动是对早期启蒙主义哲学的反叛，后者强调在面对残忍、愚蠢、迷信以及野蛮时，逻辑和理性是人类应该做出的最佳反应。与此相对，浪漫主义强调应该依靠情绪以及自然抒发的激情作为生活和伦理问题的有效指导。浪漫主义运动特别强调个体的独一无二，想像、幻想的优先地位，自发性优于“技巧”和“惯例”所具有的价值，人类对于情感表达的自然需求，对于文明相伴的堕落腐化的抵制，以及远离摧毁人类灵魂的城市生活，重返原始自然的渴望。浪漫主义者的作品通常以乡村、田园以及哥特式城堡为背景，对于“天真单纯”的个体，诸如儿童、年轻的恋人以及动物特别关心。浪漫主义的代表诗人包括威廉布莱克、威廉华兹华斯、乔治戈登拜伦、波西比希雪莱以及约翰济慈。 What is the definition of “rhetoric” according to Aristotle?the art of persuasion, equivalent to argumentation as people understand today. According to Aristotle, there are three branches of rhetoric: 1.judicial rhetoric: speech or writing that considers the justice or injustice of a certain charge or accusation.2.deliberative rhetoric: speech or writing that attempts to persuade an audience to take (or not take) some action. 3.epideictic rhetoric: speech or writing that praises or blames.Ballad(民谣) In more exact literary terminology, a ballad is a narrative poem consisting of quatrains of iambic tetrameter alternating with iambic trimeter. Common traits of the ballad are that(a) the beginning is often abrupt ,(b) the story is told through dialogue and action (c) the language is simple or “folksy,” (d) the theme is often tragic-though comic ballads do exist, (e) the ballad contains a refrain repeated several times. The ballad became popular in England in the late 14th century and was adopted by many writers. One of the most important anthologies of ballads is F. J. Childs The English and Scottish Popular Ballads. 在更为精确的文学术语中，民谣指的是抑扬格四音步与抑扬格三音步诗行交替出现的四行叙事诗。民谣的共同特色包括：（a）诗歌的起首通常十分出其不意。（b）故事通过对话和行为讲述。（c）语言简单，民风十足。（d）尽管存在喜剧民谣，但大多数民谣的主题具有悲剧意味。（e）民谣通常包含重复多遍的叠句。民谣这种诗歌形式在14世纪晚期的英格兰十分盛行，从此以后许多作家对其进行模仿创作。历史上最为知名的民谣集之一为恰尔德收集出版的英格兰和苏格兰流行歌谣。Humanism(人文主义) Broadly, this term suggests any attitude which tends to exalt the human element or stress the importance of human interests, as opposed to the supernatural , divine elements -or as opposed to the grosser, animal elements.In a more specific sense, humanism suggests a devotion to those studies supposed to promote human culture most effectively-in particular, those dealing with the life,thought, language, and literature of ancient Greece and Rome. It proclaimed that man is the most important noble creature in the world; the goal of life is to enjoy oneself in this present world instead of afterlife. According to the humanists both man and world are hindered by external checks from infinite improvement. Man could mould the world according to his desires, and attain happiness by removing all external checks by the exercise of reason. In literary history the most important use of the term is to designate the revival of classical culture which accompanied the Renaissance. 这个术语广义上是指一切提升人类因素或重视人类利益，反对超自然的、超人的因素或反对粗野的、动物的因素的态度。更确切地来讲，人文主义意味着投身到最有效地促进人类文化的研究当中特别涉及到古希腊和罗马的生活、思想、语言和文学的研究。人文主义宣称人是世界上最高贵的动物；生活的目标就是要享受现世的生活而不是期望来世。人文主义学者认为，只有外部阻碍才能阻止人类和世界的无限进步，人类可以根据自己的欲望来改造世界，并且可以通过理智的锻炼驱除外部障碍来获得幸福。文学史中，用到这个术语的最重要时刻是指文艺复兴时期对古典文化的复兴。Renaissance(文艺复兴) The word “renaissance” means rebirth or revival. It is commonly applied to the movement or period in western civilization , which marks the transition from the medieval to the modern world . It sprang up first in Italy in the 14th century and gradually spread all over Europe, the date differing for different countries. The Renaissance indicates a revival of classical (Greek and Roman) arts and sciences after the dark ages of medieval obscurantism. The study and propagation of classical learning and art was carried on by the progressive thinkers of the humanists. They held their chief interest not in ecclesiastical knowledge, but in man, his environment and doings and his brave fight for the emancipation of man from the tyranny of the church and religious dogmas. Because in the ancient Greek and Roman mythology were found the ideas of universal love, respect to human beings and approval of mans power, ability and knowledge. And at the same time worldly enjoyment on the earth was affirmed. In short, man became the center of the world instead of God as upheld in the Middle Ages. The Renaissance Movement is a great revolution carried out in the fourteenth to the mid-seventeenth century Europe. It broke the chain and bondage of feudal and theological ties and brought human wisdom and capacity into full play. Renaissance这个词意思是“复活”或“复兴”。文艺复兴通常指的是西方文明中的一场运动或一个时期，标志着中世纪向现代社会的过渡。这场运动14世纪始发于意大利，后逐渐传遍欧洲各国，其具体时间因国而异。文艺复兴是指从中世纪蒙昧主义的黑暗中解脱出来后对古典（希腊和罗马）艺术和科学的复兴。对古典学问和艺术的研究和普及工作是由人文主义者中的进步思想家进行的。他们把主要的兴趣不是放在教会知识上，而是放在人类、人的生存环境与活动以及人类为了从教堂和宗教教条的桎梏中解放出来的斗争上。他们在古希腊和罗马神话中找到了博爱的思想、对人类的尊重以及对人类的力量、能力和知识的承认，同时，也肯定了现世的享乐。简言之，世界的中心是人类自身，再也不是中世纪时期的上帝。文艺复兴运动是欧洲从十四世纪到十七世纪中期期间的一场伟大的运动。这场运动打破了封建枷锁和神学束缚，充分发挥了人类的智慧和能力。What is tragedy？a serious play (or, by extension, a novel ) representing the disastrous downfall of a central character, the protagonist. The Greek philosopher Aristotle put forward his most influential definition of tragedy in his Poetics (4th century BC): the imitation of an action that is serious and complete, achieving a catharsis (“purification”) through incidents arousing pity and terror.What is allegory？The word allegory is from the Greek word allegoria, which means “speaking otherwise. Allegory is a story in verse or prose with a double meaning: a primary or surface meaning, and a secondary or under-the-surface meaning. Since it represents one thing in the guise of another, i. e., an abstraction in that of a concrete image, it can be read, understood and interpreted at two levels - the literal level and the political, ethical or religious level. Allegories are effective in teaching or explaining some abstract idea. They are favorably used in moral teaching. It is a figurative representation of some abstract truth by the use of symbolic language.Cavalier PoetsCavalier Poets is a broad description of a school of English poets of the 17th century, who came from the classes that supported King Charles I during the English Civil War.Cavalier poetsCavalier poets, a group of English poets associated with Charles I and his exiled son. Most of their work was done between c.1637 and 1660. Their poetry embodied the life and culture of upper-class, pre-Commonwealth England, mixing sophistication with navet, elegance with raciness. Writing on the courtly themes of beauty, love, and loyalty, they produced finely finished verses, expressed with wit and directness. The poetry reve