语言学框架.doc

Chapter 1 Introduction1.1 What is linguistics?1.1.1 Definition Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.1.1.2 The scope of linguistics语言学范畴Phonetics语音学/Phonology音系学/Morphology形态学/Syntax句法学/Semantics语义学/Pragmatics语用学Macrolinguistics宏观语言学：sociolinguistics社会语言学/Psycholinguistics心理语言学/Applied linguistics应用语言学1.1.3 Important distinctions in linguistics语言学中重要区别1) prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性2) synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性 Saussure 3) speech & writing 口语和书面语4) langue & parole 语言(抽象)和言语(具体) Saussure 5) competence & performance 能力和运用 Chomsky 6) traditional grammar & modern linguistics 传统语法和现代语言学 索绪尔现代语言学之父1.2 What is language?1.2.1 Definition of language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.2.2 Design features of language语言的区别性特征 Hockett (1) Arbitrariness任意性：符号的音与义之间没有逻辑联系。比如说，不同的语言使用不同的音指相同的事物。(2) Productivity/Creativity创造性：语言可以被创造。(3) Duality二重性：语言在结构上存在两个层次低层次（音标）和高层次（词素、单词等）。(4) Displacement移位性：语言不受语言时空距离的影响。(5) Cultural transmission文化传递性：语言体系具体内容的习得要通过后天的学习来获得。1.2.3 Function of language(descriptive function/expressive function/social function)informative信息功能/interpersonal人际功能/performative施为功能/emotive感情功能/phatic communication寒暄功能/recreational娱乐功能/metalinguistic元语言功能Chapter 2 Phonology音系学2.1 The phonic medium of language语言的声音媒介2.2 Phonetics语音学2.2.1 What is phonetics?什么是语音学？ Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages. articulatory phonetics发音语音学 研究语言的产生three points of view auditory phonetics听觉语音学 研究语言怎样被感知 acoustic phonetics声学语音 研究语音的物理属性2.2.2 Organs of speech发音器官 the pharyngeal cavity - the throat咽腔 the oral cavity - the mouth口腔 the nasal cavity - the nose鼻腔2.2.3 Broad and narrow transcriptions宽式和窄式音标 The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA国际音标) - Daniel Jones - 18882.3 Phonology音系学2.3.1 Phonology and phonetics音系学和语音学 Phonology is the study about how speech sound in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Phonetics is the scientific study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with defining and classifying speech sounds. phonology 研究抽象的音位类型与规则 - 一样Differences: l in leap & peel phonetics 研究具体发音部位与方式 - 不同 2.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophone音素、音位和音位变体（1）音素：是语音学研究的单位，是一个个具体的声音。“ ” （2）音位：是音系学研究的单位，是抽象的概念，每一个音位是一组语音特征的集合体，音位具有区别意义的作用。“/ /”（3）音位变体：是一个音位在特定的语音环境力的具体体现，同一音位在不同语音环境里体现为不同的变体，也就是语音。 /k/: k school kh coll k ski kh keel 总结：语音学 - 音素 - 发音 - 音系学 - 音位 - 不发音 - / /2.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair音位对立，互补分布，最小对立体（1）音位对立：两个音位出现在相同的语音环境中，且具有区别语义的功能。 例：tip和dip中的/t/和/d/；rope和robe中的/p/和/b/（2）互补分布：同一音位不同音位变体之间的关系，且没有区别意义的功能。 例：top中送气的th和stop中不送气的t（3）最小对立体：出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合。 例：bill和pill（辅音）, bet和but（元音）2.3.4 Some rules in phonology音系学规则2.3.4.1 Sequential rules序列规则 三辅音连缀规则：/s/ - /p/, /t/, /k/ - /l/, /r/, /w/2.3.4.2 Assimilation rule同化规则2.3.4.3 Deletion rule省略规则：g2.3.5 Suprasegmental features超音段特征2.3.5.1 Stress重读2.3.5.2 Tone音调/声调2.3.5.3 Intonation语调Chapter 3 Morphology形态学3.1 Introduction Morphology is concerned with word formation and word structure.形态学研究单词的内部结构和构词规则。3.2 Open class and closed class(1) Open class words开放词类：content words实词 - nouns, verbs, adjectives.(2) Closed class words封闭词类：function words虚词 - conjunctions, articles.3.3 Morphemes- the minimal units of meaning 词素最小的“语义”单位( reader是一个单词，read 和 er 是两个词素 / boys是一个单词，boy和s是两个词素）(1) Free and bound morphemes自由词素和黏着词素 自由词素有完整语义 如：book; helpful中的help 黏着词素词根、词缀(2) Allomorphs词素变体 如： a放在辅音前；an放在元音前 books, bags, judges中的s三种不同的读音3.4 Analyzing word structuresroots and affixes (prefix, infix, suffix)3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(1) derivational morphemes派生词素：构成新单词 如：-ate, inter-, -ism.(2) inflectional morphemes曲折词素：改变数、时、格、级 如：-s, -ed, -er, -est. 自由词素free 前缀prefix词素morphemes 派生词素derivational 黏着词素bound 后缀suffix 曲折词素inflectional 3.6 Morphological rules of word formation3.7 Derivation派生词3.8 Compounds复合词3.8.1 Definition A compound word is made when two words are joined to form a new word.3.8.2 复合词特征：(1) Orthographically书写特征：in three ways: solid (airmail); hyphenated (air-conditioning); open (air force, air raid)(2) Syntactically句法特征：复合词的词性一般取决于复合词最后一个成分的词性(3) Semantically语义特征：复合词的意义具有习语性质，许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分意义和总和(4) Phonetically语音特征：复合词的单词重音落在第一个构成成分上Chapter 4 Syntax句法学4.1 What is syntax? Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.4.2 Categories4.2.1 Word-level categories（1）major lexical categories: n. v. a. prep.（2）minor lexical categories: determiner（Det限定词） the, a, this, those. degree words（Deg程度词） quite, so, more. qualifier（Qual频率词） often, always, almost. auxiliary（Aux助动词） must, should, can. conjunction（Con连接词） and, but, or.4.2.2 Phrase categories and their structures（1） NP the pretty girl / VP often dream / AP very pessimistic（2） head中心语；specifier标志语；complement补足语4.3 Phrase structure rule4.3.1 XP ruleXP Specifier X Complement Head (the girl in the room) 4.3.2 Coordination rule：X X Con(连词) X4.4 Phrase elements4.4.1 Specifiers标志语SpecifiersHeadsExamplesdeterminerNthe tree, no water, this book.qualifierValways fail, often drink, never leave.degree wordAless boring, quite good, very sensitive.Palmost in, quite above.4.4.2 Complements补足语CPItemsHeadsExamplesAsAdjectivesafraid, awareI was afraid that nobody would believe me.NsNounsfact, beliefShe cant believe the fact that she would fail.PsPrepositionsover, aboutThey argued over whether she had come to class.4.4.3 ModifiersModifierPositionExampleAPprecedes the heada very careful girlPPfollows the headopen with careAdvPprecedes or follows the headread carefully; carefully read4.5 Sentences ( The S Rule )4.6 Transformations4.6.1 Auxiliary movement助动词移位4.6.2 Do insertion4.6.3 Deep structure and surface structure (the generative approach生成学派)（1）深层结构deep structure指机构关系中的潜在层面underlying level（移位还没有发生的原始形态）：The train will arrive.（2）表层结构surface structure指结构形成的最后结果阶段final stage（移位后的新形态）：Will the train arrive?（3）结构：The XP Rule Deep StructureTransformationSurface Structure4.6.4 Wh Movement4.6.5 Move and constraints on transformationChapter 5 Semantics语义学5.1 What is semantics Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.5.2 Some views concerning the study of meaning5.2.1 The naming theory指称论 (1) Plato(2) The words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(3) Limitations: applicable to nouns only; 抽象名词（ghost, joy, impulse.）5.2.2 The conceptualist view观念论 (1) Ogden and Richards(2) There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.(3) semantic triangle语义三角：Thought / Reference（能指：概念）Symbol / Form - Referent（词和语素） （所指：物体）5.2.3 Contextualism语境论(1) J.R. Firth, Malinowski, Wittgenstein(2) Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context - elements closely linked with language behaviour.5.2.4 Behaviorism行为论(1) Bloomfield, Jack and Jill(2) The Stimulus - Response Theory (S-R) 刺激-反应理论5.3 Lexical meaning词汇意义5.3.1 Sense and reference系统意义与指称意义(1) Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features. （抽象；脱离语境）如：dog(2) Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. （具体）如：The dog is barking.(3) Limitation: evening star（启明星）and morning star（长庚星）是同一颗星。5.3.2 Major sense relations主要的语义关系5.3.2.1 Synonymy同义关系(1) Dialectal synonyms - synonyms used in different regional dialects. 地域同义词如：秋天 (autumn / fall) ; 公寓 (flat / apartment).(2) Stylistic synonyms - synonyms differing in style. 文体同义词如：daddy, dad, father, male parent, old man.(3) Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning. 感情同义词如：collaborator / accomplice均指合作者，但前者为“合作伙伴”，后者为“同谋”(4) Collocational synonyms 搭配同义词如：指“坏的食物” rotten tomatoes, addled eggs, rancid bacon or butter.(5) Semantically different synonyms 意思非常相近的同义词如：amaze / astound5.3.2.2 Polysemy多义关系 - 一词多义5.3.2.3 Homonymy - the same form, but different meaning同音同形异义关系(1) Homophones: night / knight; piece / peace.(2) Homographs: bow - v. / n. ; tear - v. / n. .(3) Complete homonyms: fast - adj. / v. ; scale - n. / v. .5.3.2.4 Hyponymy上下义关系(1) Superordinate上义如：flower, animal.(2) Hyponymy下义如：(flower) rose, lily.; (animal) dog, cat.5.3.2.5 Antonymy反义关系(1) Gradable antonymy分等级的反义关系如：cool - warm; hot - cold.(2) Complementary antonyms互补反义词如：dead - alive; male - female.(3) Relational opposites关系反义词如：husband - wife; father - son.5.4 Sense relations between sentences(1) X is synonymous with Y.如：X: He was a bachelor all his life.Y: He never married all his life.(2) X is inconsistent with Y.如：X: John is married.Y: John is a bachelor.(3) X entails Y. (Y is and entailment of X) 衍推如：X: He has been to France Y: He has been to Europe.(4) X presuppose Y. (Y is a prerequisite of X) 预设如：X: The queen of England is old.Y: England has a queen.(5) X is contradiction. 矛盾如：My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.(6) X is semantically anomalous. 非正常的如：The table had bad intentions.5.5 Analysis of meaning5.5.1 Componential analysis - a way to analyze lexical meaning5.5.2 Predication analysis - a way to analyze sentence meaning补充：Leech and his 7 types of meaning语义七分法（1） 概念意义conceptual meaning字面意义；（2） 内涵意义connotative meaning实际交往过程中所指的事物；（3） 社会意义（4） 情感意义affective meaning（5） 反射意义reflective meaning由一个词语联想起来的另外一种意义（6） 搭配意义collocative meaning（7） 主位意义thematic meaning通过调整信息的顺序和强调内容所表达的意义Chapter 6 Pragmatics语用学6.1 Some basic notions6.1.1 Definition Pragmatics is the study of speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.6.1.2 Pragmatics vs. semanticssemantics不考虑语境6.1.3 Context6.1.4 Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning(1) Sentence meaning抽象的，去语境化(2) Utterance meaning具体的，依靠语境6.2 Speech act theory言语行为理论6.2.1 Austins model of speech acts(1) John Austin(2) 认为人在说话的同时也在进行一定的行为动作(3) constatives and performatives: constatives叙事句：描述说话人在说话时所作的动作。 performatives施为句：实施某种行为。(4) locutionary act言内行为：表述字面意思 illocutionary act言外行为：因言语本身的习惯力量而产生的其他一些行为 perlocutionary act言后行为：话语在听者身上产生的效果6.2.2 Searles classification of speech acts(1) John Searle(2) illocutionary acts: representatives / assertives: 阐述类 directives: 指令类 commissives: 承诺类 expressives: 表达类 declarations: 宣告类6.2.3 Indirect speech acts(1) John Searle(2) Primary speech act: goal Secondary speech act: means6.3 Principle of conversation(1) Paul Grice(2) 说话人和听话人为达一定的交际目的，都有一种默契，一种都遵循的原则(3) Conventional implicature规约含义(4) Particularized conversational implicature特殊会话含义(5) Cooperative Principle (CP): 合作原则 The maxim of quantity数量准则 The maxim of quality质量准则 The maxim of relation关系准则 The maxim of manner方式准则6.4 Cross-cultural pragmatic failure跨文化语用失误补充：后格赖斯时期的发展(1) Relevance theory关联理论：交际应被看做一种表明自身说话意图的行为(2) The Q-and R-principles数量关系和关系原则：由Laurence Horn提出Chapter 7 Language Change7.1 IntroductionOld English Middle English Modern English7.2 Phonological changes7.3 Morphological and syntactic change7.3.1 Addition of affixes7.3.2 Loss of affixes7.3.3 Change of word order7.3.4 Change in negation rule7.4 Lexical and semantic change7.4.1 Addition of new words(1) Coinage: for new things and objects如：Kodak, digital camera.(2) Clipped words:如：gym(gymnasium), disco(discotheque).(3) Blending:如：smog(smoke+fog), motel(motor+hotel).(4) Acronyms:可读首字母缩写如：APEC, UNESCO.(5) Back-formation:如：babysitter - babysit; donation - donate.(6) Function shift (conversion):如：n. - v.; v. - n. .(7) Borrowing:如：tea, question, physics.补充： clipping: maths, burger.（长单词简写）Abbreviation缩写： initialism: UN, USA.（首字母缩写） acronym: UNESCO.（首字母缩合）7.4.2 Loss of words7.4.3 Semantic changes(1) Semantic broadening如：holiday - holy day any rest daytail - horse any animal(2) Semantic narrowing如：deer - any animal 鹿meat - food 肉(3) Semantic shift7.5 Some recent trends7.5.1 Moving towards greater information7.5.2 The influence of American English7.5.3 The influence of science and technology7.6 The causes of language changeChapter 8 Language and society8.1 The scope of sociolinguistics8.1.1 The scope of sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live. 8.1.2 Speech community and speech variety语言社区与语言变体(1) Speech community is the social group that is singled out for any special study.(2) Speech variety refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.8.1.3 Two approaches to sociolinguistic studies(1) Macro-sociolinguistics: the sociology of language(2) Micro-sociolinguistics: sociolinguistics proper8.2 Varieties of language8.2.1 Dialectal varieties方言变体8.2.1.1 Regional dialect地域方言 A regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same region.8.2.1.2 Sociolect社会方言 Sociolect has to do with separation brought about by different social conditions.即：同一地域的人说的话也不尽相同，因为性别、年龄、等级、种族等差别。8.2.1.3 Language and gender8.2.1.4 Language and age8.2.1.5 Idiolect个人习语 Idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations.8.2.1.6 Ethnic dialect种族方言8.2.2 Register语域 Halliday Register is the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.语言使用的场合或领域的总称语域的三个社会变量：(1) Field语场：话语范围，是话语涉及的主题内容。(2) Tenor语旨：语言基调，是指话语发放者与接收者的关系，如作家与读者。(3) Mode语式：话语方式（口语形式与书面形式）。如：a lecture on biology in a technical college could be identified as: Field: scientific (biological) Tenor: teacher - students (formal, polite) Mode: oral (academic lecturing)8.2.3 Degree of formality Martin Joos (1) intimate宣告; (2) casual; (3) consultative咨询; (4) formal; (5) frozen刻板8.3 Standard dialect规范方言8.4 Pidgin and Creole(1) Pidgin洋泾浜语: a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.(2) Creole: 由 pidgin 发展而来的，有自己的语法体系，有书面记录，有一定有威望度。Chapter 9 Language and c