应用语言学与外语教学.doc

My cat, who believes that Im a fool, enjoys tormenting me.应用语言学与外语教学Applied Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching一、语言学与应用语言学1、 当代国外语言学与应用语言学文库，外语教学与研究出版社，2000-2001。2、 牛津应用语言学丛书（19本），上海外语教育出版社，1999。3、 牛津应用语言学丛书（续编）（10本），上海外语教育出版社，2000。4、 剑桥应用语言学丛书（10本），上海外语教育出版社，2001。5、 外语教学法丛书（20本），上海外语教育出版社，2002。6、 剑桥英语教师丛书（20本），外语教学与研究出版社，2000。二、交际能力与交际英语教学Chomsky Competence / performanceAccording to Hymes, communicative competence is a competence “when to speak, when not, and as to what to talk about with whom, when, where, in what manner.”Communicative competence is that aspect of our competence that enables us to convey and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings interpersonally within specific contexts.1、交际能力的四个参数（1）可能性程度(degree of possibiblity): 指某一语言系统中可能存在的东西（如个人在特定语言社团中关于语言的语音、语法、词汇、语义、语用等知识）；（2）可行性(feasibility)程度：指个人心理方面的语言容量（如个人的记忆和认知）；（3）合适性(appropriateness)程度：指交际中言语行为的得体表达（如对交际背景、目的、常规、参加者等因素的合理考虑）；（4）出现性(performance)程度：指交际中言语行为是否可行（如在可能、可行、和合适的情况下是否可做）。2、交际能力的四个组成部分(1) 语法能力(grammatical competence)，包括语音、词法、句法、词汇等语言知识，它所涉及和注重的是正确理解和表达话段(utterance)的字面意义所需要的知识； （2）社交能力(sociolinguistic competence)，涉及的是语言使用的社会规则，这种规则指在人际交际中合适理解和使用话语的方式；(3) 语言策略能力(strategic competence)，包括言语和非言语两方面的交际策略，这种能力主要用来补救交际中因缺乏应有的能力等所导致的交际中断；(4)话语能力(discourse competence)，考虑的是话语规则和在话语中组织句子和话段时所需要的知识和技能。这种能力与语法能力的主要不同在于：前者指在超句平面上组织句子（话段）以及考虑句际关系的能力，而后者指句平面上谴词造句的能力。3、培养交际能力的三个平面语言教学可以有三种不同的方法：(1)结构 - 分析(structural-analytic)方法：Focus on language (formal features)a. structural control; b. material simplified structurally; c. mainly structural practice(2)功能 - 分析(functional-analytic)方法:Focus on language (discourse features)a. discourse control; b. material simplified functionally; c. mainly discourse practice(3)非分析或经历(non-analytic or experiential)法:Focus on the use of languagea. situational or topical control; b. authentic language; c. free practice三、Krashen和他的第二语言习得理论(1)习得与学知的区别 the Acquisition-learning Distinction HypothesisLanguage acquisition is a subconsciousprocess The result of language acquisition, acquired competence, is also subconscious. Other ways of describing acquisition include implicit learning, informal learning, and natural learning. In non-technical language, acquisition is “picking-up” a language. 习得就是下意识的、非正式的、自然的、甚至是“拾遗”似的学习过程。Language learning: We will use the term “learning” to refer to conscious knowledge of a second language, knowing the rules, being aware of them, and being able to talk about them. In non-technical terms, learning is “knowing about” a language, known to most people as “grammar”, or “rules”. Some synonyms include formal knowledge of a language, or explicit learning. 学知是指有意识地、正式地、明确地学习语言的规则，即“语法”。习得是首要的，第一位的。但并不排斥学知的作用。(2)语法检测 the Monitor Hypothesis(3)自然习得顺序 the Natural Order Hypothesis(4)输入语 the Input HypothesisThe input hypothesis runs counter to our usual pedagogical approach in second and foreign language teaching. As Hatch has pointed out, our assumption has been that we first learn structures, then practice using them in communication, and this is how fluency develops. The input hypothesis says the opposite. It says we acquire by “going for meaning” first, and as a result, we acquire structure!” “humans acquire language in only one way - by understanding message, or by receiving comprehensible input”Comprehensible input是指稍微高出学生现有水平的大量反复出现的输入语。例如，将学生的现有的外语水平定为i, 那么，教学中应提供的输入语应具有i+1的水平，而不应该停留在原水平上。具体内容概括为四点。a. 输入语与习得联系紧密，而与学知无关。b. 人们习得语言是靠理解含有稍微超出他们现有水平的实际语言，而且这种实际语言一定要易懂并含有i+1的语言结构。c. 如果交流的目的达到了，而且输入语量多而又易懂，那么i+1的结构也就自然地学会了。d. （语言）再生能力不是直接教会的，而是逐渐地在实际语言环境中形成的。(5)心理障碍 the Affective Filter Hypothesis影响学生习得语言的几个心理因素：a.动力。学生学习目的是否明确，直接影响他们的学习效果。目的明确则动力大，反之，则收效甚微。b.自信心。那些比较自信，自我感觉良的学生在学习中进展较快。c. 顾虑。在第二语言或外语的学习中，顾虑较少的人容易得到更多的输入语。Summary:a.Acquisition is more important than learning.b.In order to acquire, two conditions are necessary. The first is comprehensible (or even better, comprehended) input containing i+1, structures a bit beyond the acquirers current level, and second, a low or weak affective filter to allow the input “in”.四、语境研究与外语教学(1) Johns book另一种语境概念 - 动态语境(dynamic context)Context is dynamic, not a static concept: it is to be understood as the continually changing surroundings.A dynamic context is an environment that is in steady development, prompted by the continuous interaction of the people engaged in language use.(2) Jacob: Do you know the way back to the dining hall? We can go in my car. Mark: Oh, I thought you didnt know the way to the campus. Jacob: I thought you didnt know.Clearly, Mark takes Jacobs utterance not as a real” question, but as a “pre-request” for information. 与语境有关的几种理论：(1)Grice的“合作原则”(Cooperative Principle)与“会话含义”(conversational implicature)理论。Grice提出了著名的合作原则，包括4条准则：量的准则(maxim of quantity; 说的话应当包含当前交际目的所需的信息内容，说的话不应包含超出需要的信息内容），质的准则(maxim of quality; 努力使你所说的话是真实的，不要说你认为是虚假的话，不要说你缺乏证据的话），关系准则(maxim of relation; 要有关联）和方式准则（maxim of manner; 要清楚明白，避免晦涩的表达，避免歧义，要简练，要有条理）。e.g. (i) a. Getting married and having a child is better than having a child and getting married.b. Having a child and getting married is better than getting married and having a child. 故意违反合作原则产生会话含义的例子：(ii) a. A: Where does John live? B: He lives in London. b. I am John Smith from London, 28, unmarried.(iii) Doorman: I need to see your ID, its the rule Inger: But I left it back at the hotel. Doorman: Sorry maam, then I cant let you in. Inger: But Im twenty-nine and the mother of four! Doorman: Yes, and Im the popes grandfather and have six kids.(iv) Oh, quite well, I think; he likes his colleagues, and he hasnt been to prison yet.(v) A: Lets get the kids something. B: Okey, but I veto I-C-E-R-E-A-M-S.(2) Sperber和Wilson的关联理论如果在一特定语境中，对一句话的解释会容许听话人得出某种结论，这种结论既不能单独从语境中得到，也不能单独从这句话本身得到，那么，这句话就被认为具有某种语境效果(contextual effect)。(vi) They all do.(vii) A: How many of your friends want to come to supper tonight? B: They all do. 话语必须与语境一起产生语境效果，在交际中才是相关的。一般地说，说话人总是相信他说的话在当时的情况下对听话人最为相关，即让听话人花费最小的力气就能语境和说话人的话获得说话人所欲传递的信息。(viii) A: If Ann is here, the party will be a success. B1: Ann is here. B2: Ann has come by car.这就是所谓“关联原则”(the principle of relevance)。(3) Sinclair的自然性理论并不是每个合乎语法、语义正确的句子都具有同等的交际作用。一个句子在交际中的作用在很大程度上是由它与语境的结合能力决定的。(ix) a. I have a face. b. I have a nice face.(x) I have a nice face, so they dont bug（打扰） me.语境研究对外语教学的启示： a. 应该注意句子与语境结合产生的信息 b. 应该重视社会文化背景知识英美文化倾向于低语境交际(low-context communication)，而在中国则是高语境交际(high-context communication)。正是由于这个原因，中国人使用英语同英美人交际，尽管句子都合乎语法，但常常不能达到交际的目的。(xi) A: Sir? B. Yes, wha