商务英语谈判用语特点.doc

学 年 论 文 题 目 商务英语谈判用语特点 学 生 指导教师 年 级 2006级专 业 英语教育系 别 英语系学 院 西语学院 TERM PAPERENGLISH DEPARTMENTHARBIN NORMAL UNIERSITYTITLE: The Feature of Language Used in Business NegotiationSTUDENT: TUTOR:GRADE: Grade 2006MAJOR: English EducationDEPARTMENT: English DepartmentCOLLEGE: Faculty of Western Languages and Literatures The Feature of Language Used in Business NegotiationAbstract: This paper aims at summarizing the features of language used in business negotiation. After a brief introduction to the functions and classifications of languages, the paper respectively presents the features of improper language and effective language used in business negotiation. Since negotiation is quite a practical activity, this paper sets forth a lot of vivid example added to the theoretical demonstration.Key words: business negotiation ; language features. Introduction To negotiate is to reach an acceptable agreement by two counterparts who hold different opinions and share limited amount of interests by means of communication. Therefore, language used during the communication process plays a very significant role, especially the communication among people from different countries who hold different cultural backgrounds, ways of thinking, and understanding of meaning.1. Language Implication In Business NegotiationThe language used in business negotiation is to detect, hint, induce and even threaten the counterparts as reactions to their words, countenance, manners, body language and attitudes. It is the manifest of the negotiators ability of thinking and intelligence in logic way and that of convey of judgment, inference and demonstration to their counterparts or fellow negotiators2. Language Function in Business NegotiationThe language used in business negotiation functions a lot. A proper way of speaking involves clear statement, sufficient demonstration and sensible consideration and it can improve the chance to persuade the opponent, reach mutual understanding, coordinate the objectives and interests of both parts and secure the success of negotiation. Generally speaking, language used in business negotiation has three functions. Firstly, it can help to clearly state the negotiators opinion, purpose and requirement. When the two parts get together to discuss the contents of a certain transaction, whether they can make their statement in an articulate, simple and clear language matters a great deal. Its second function is to persuade the counterparts. During the negotiation process, the negotiators usually content each other for their respective interests, thus the part that can persuade the other to accept his opinion and make concession will earn the larger purse; that is to say, the one who is unable to persuade the other may lose. The third function is to relax the tension, harmonize the relations of two parts, and thus to promote the negotiation. In some of the case, the negotiation may reach an impasse because of temporarily uncompromising dispute, which never means the break of negotiation immediately. So how to avoid making tense atmosphere and how to break the deadlock existed already largely depend on the art of language.3. Language Classifications in Business Negotiation Practically speaking, any vivid and vigorous international business negotiation consists of four types of languages: diplomatic language, commercial and law language, literature language, and military language. Diplomatic language features in possibility, craftiness and buffer in expression. It presents others the sense of elegance and respect in business negotiation just as the diplomatists do. Commercial and law language characterizes in rigidity, generality and rigorousness. During the development of commerce, some international practices and conventions are settled down, so the language in business negotiation should follow certain traditions. Negotiator under the influence of national culture and personal preference adopts it to reach an effect of lightness but harshness and to soften the economic struggle. Military language has the features of conciseness, straightforwardness, confirmation and confidence. It functions to strengthen the speakers attitude, attack the counterpart psychologically, and renew the morale on his own side.The very definition of negotiation, in its modern sense, can vary from culture to culture. What a negotiation is designed to accomplish is seen differently by different groups of people. Before one even comes to the table, such differences in the meaning or purpose of the negotiation affect the negotiation, as how one defines the process of negotiating is culturally determined. Some cultures see it only as an opportunity to bargain, others as the establishment of a lifetime relationship that goes beyond the occasional meeting, still others as an opportunity to demonstrate their capacity for eloquence and debate. Some do not see negotiation as a process at all. For instance, Americans and Europeans tend to see negotiations as a competitive process; the Chinese and the Japanese see it as a collaborative endeavor. So there are many more challenges in an intercultural environment than in a mono-cultural setting. Intercultural negotiations are negotiation where the negotiating parties belong to different cultures and do not share the same ways of thinking, feeling, and behavior. The negotiation process is generally more complex because cultural norms may undermine effective communication. Language goes beyond the spoken word, encompassing nonverbal actions and behaviors that reveal hidden clues to culture. In the negotiation process, interpersonal communication is the key activity that takes place at the verbal, nonverbal, situational contextual level, and a total communication system can assist the negotiator to bridge the gap between utterance and felt meaning. Three key topics-time, space, body language-offer a starting point from which negotiators can begin to acquire the understanding necessary to do business in foreign countries. TimeTwo different orientations to time exist across the world: monochronic and polychronic. Monochronic approaches to time are linear, sequential and involve focusing on one thing at a time. These approaches are most common in the European-influenced cultures of the United States, Germany, Switzerland, and the Scandinavia. Japanese people also tend toward this end of the time continuum. Polychronic orientations to time involve working on several activities simultaneously. The time it takes to complete an interaction is elastic, and more important than any schedule. This orientation is most common in Mediterranean and Latin cultures including France, Italy, Greece, and Mexico, as well as some Eastern and African cultures.SpaceSpace orientations differ across cultures. They have to do with territory, divisions between private and public, comfortable personal distance, comfort or lack of comfort with physical touch and contact, and expectations about where and how contact will take place. For example, an American etiquette manual advises this about personal space: “When you meet someone, dont stand too close. An uncomfortable closeness is very annoying to the other person, so keep your physical distance, or hell have to keep backing off from you. A minimum of two feet away from the other person will do it.”There are large differences in spatial preferences according to gender, age, generation, socioeconomic class, and context. These differences vary by group, but should be considered in any exploration of space as a variable in negotiations. Body LanguageBody Language can be telling as it can help one determine the exact meaning of what the other side is saying and also can help you get your own message across. Likes and dislikes, tensions, and assessing an argument are shown by numerous signs such as blushing, contraction of facial muscles, giggling, strained laughter or simply silence. Wherever a party negotiates, the negotiator must watch and observe the other party. People, when seated, lean forward if they like what you are saying or are interested in listening. They sit back with crossed arms if they do not like the message. Nervousness can manifest itself through nonverbal behavior, and blinking can be related to feeling of guilt or fear. IV. Four Dimensions of CultureAny analysis of culture is incomplete without the basic recognition of cultural differences. It has been argued that differences among cultures can be explained according to four dimensions of culture.Individualism-CollectivismIn individualistic cultures the focus of ones behavior can be unashamedly self-centered. The individual can make objections, state his feelings and be openly judgmental. Success or failure is left to the individual and does not cause the same degree of shame among the group. In individualistic cultures, people tend to put tasks before relationships and to value independence highly. People in these cultures are expected to take care of themselves and to value the needs of the individual over those of the groups, community, or society. Individualistic cultures prefer linear logic and tend to value open conflict. Members from individualistic societies expect the other sides negotiators to have the ability to make decisions unilaterally.Collectivist negotiators tend to assume that details can be worked out if the negotiators can agree on generalities. Collectivist societies show more concern for the needs of the other party and focus more on group goals than individualistic societies. Members of collectivist societies chafe when members from individualistic societies promote their own positions and ideas during negotiations.Power DifferentialThe idea of power differential describes the degree of deference and acceptance of unequal power between people. Cultures where there is a comfort with high power differential are those where some people are considered superior to others because of their social status, gender, race, age, education, birthright, personal achievements, family background or other factors. Cultures with low power differential tend to assume equality among people, and focus more on earned status than ascribed status. Generally speaking, the more unequally wealth is distributed, the bigger will be the power differential in any national setting. National cultures with a high power differential include Arabian countries, Malaysia, the Philippines, Mexico, Indonesia, and India. Negotiators from these countries tend to be comfortable with: hierarchical structures; clear authority figures; the right to use power with discretion. Countries with a low power differential include U.S., Austria, Denmark, Israel, New Zealand, Ireland, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Switzerland, Britain, and Germany. Negotiators from these countries tend to be comfortable with: democratic structures and flat organizational hierarchies; shared authority; the right to use power only in limited circumstances and for legitimate purposes.Features of Improper Language in Business Negotiation In negotiation, some ways of language using listed below should be avoided; otherwise, they may block the negotiation.(1) Self-centered words. The more one uses self-centered words, the more disgusted the other may feel.(2) Mouth fillings. Expressions like “and”, “As what I had said earlier” and “Really?” are repeated subconsciously and will do no good to negotiation.(3) Ambiguous expressions. Those words like“ maybe”, “ possibly so” and “It seems” may give the other part the undesirable impression of infirmity and distrust-worthiness except when used as diplomatic expressions, and should be used limitedly.(4) Extreme language. Such expressions as “definitely so”,“ absolutely ” not like this ”should be avoided even though one is very sure about what he/she is saying.(5) Angry words. Usually those words are far from real wishes bur are out of rush emotions under certain indignation that may be a trick played by the other side. For example, “you have profited50,000more from last deal, how dare you want another cut this time?”(6) Urgent language. Such language as “ Please hurry up and answer me at once.” Or “be quick and tell me, Ive lost my patience.” May make the opponent feel uneasy, or even enrage him. (7) Threatening expressions. Expressions like“ You are blocking your way back if you act in this way.” Or “I will hold you accountable if you do like this.” May sometimes have the function of oppression upon the other but will negatively affect the negotiators in most cases. (8) Critic words. The use of critic words may cause the opponent to lose face. Many experts point out that if the opponent feels he has lost face, it may result in irrevocable troubles, even though a good deal might be concluded. When ones dignity is threatened, he will guard himself and be hostile to the counterparts. If it is the case, it would be impossible to build up relationship with him, let alone to keep the negotiation process on.It must be emphasized that there is no one right approach to negotiations. There are only effective and less effective approaches and these vary according to many contextual factors. As negotiators understand that their counterparts may be seeing things very differently, they will be less likely to make negative judgments and more likely to make progress in negotiations. The research and observations by most scholars indicate fairly clearly that negotiation practices differ from culture to culture and that culture can influence “negotiating style”-the way persons from different cultures conduct themselves in negotiating sessions. For example, U.S. negotiators tend to rely on individualist values, imagining self and other as autonomous, independent, and self-reliant. This does not mean that they dont consult, but the tendency to see self as separate rather than as a member of a web or network means that more independent initiatives may be taken. American negotiators tend to be competitive in their approach to negotiations, including coming to the table with a fallback position but beginning with an unrealistic offer.Therefore，American negotiators often act in an impersonal way-“business is business” is their maxim. Besides, American negotiators are always mission-driven-anxious to bring parties concerned into agreement, and they have little interest in building up any relationship. Furthermore, American negotiators like to be openly challenged for the negotiation, and they think it is quite normal if they run into any conflict with any party concerned.Chinese negotiators also look forward to long-term partnership. Unlike America negotiators, they are not in a hurry to push for an agreement. Generally there is a slow start to “warm up”, and then it is followed by some tentative suggestions. Like their Japanese counterparts, Chinese negotiators do not expect any open conflict for whatever reasons, and they are trying to “save face” for both sides.The Chinese are reserved and known for their hospitality and good manners. The Chinese consider mutual relationships and trust very important. Therefore, time will be spent in the beginning enjoying tea and social talk. However, they are some of the toughest negotiators in the eyes of foreign negotiators. Technical competence of negotiators is necessary, and a non-condescending attitude is important because the Chinese research their opponents thoroughly to gain a competitive advantage during negotiation. Nothing is final until it is signed; and they prefer to use an intermediary. The Chinese delegation will be large. They rarely use lawyers, and interpreters may have inadequate language skills and experience. Although Chinese negotiators imply that there is no compromise or third choice, in reality there is ample room for compromise.Even as different approaches to negotiation across national cultures are identified, change is constant. International business culture tends to privilege Western approaches to negotiation, centering on problem-solving and linear communication, as do many settings. As Western norms are balanced with Eastern values, and local traditions are balanced with regional and national approaches, negotiation practices continue their global evolution. Culture can influence the way in which persons perceive and approach certain key elements in the negotiating process. Knowledge of these cultural differences may help negotiators to better understand and interpret their counterparts negotiating behavior and to find ways to bridge gaps created by cultural differences. Equally important, professional and occupational culture may be as important as national culture in shaping a persons negotiating style and attitudes toward the negotiation process. If true, negotiators should at least note two important implications. First, practitioners need to take into account professional culture, as well as national culture, in their studies and analysis of the impact of culture on negotiating table, negotiators from different cultures but with similar occupational or professional backgrounds might seek to the elements of their professional culture in trying to bridge the cultural gap between them.Negotiators as members of society are led easily into attitudes of cultural bias. The only way to overcome that bias is to create awareness of ones own cultural system by understanding how other people behave in another system. The negotiator, from his knowledge of his opponents culture and his sensitivity to it, can adapt his behavior to the situation and serve the interests of the interaction. The more and better the communicat