Chapter_3_Cultural_values跨文化交际文化价值观模式

1 ChapterThreeCulturalValues Patterns Orientations Contents 1 Perception BeliefandValues 1 1Perception 1 2Beliefs 1 3Values 2 CulturalPatterns 1 1Whatisperception Perceptionisprimaryinthestudyofinterculturalcommunication becauseourinformationaboutandknowledgeofourphysicalandsocialworldaremediated 传达 byperceptualprocesses Ourperceptionsgivemeaningtoallthoseexternalforces symbols things people ideas events ideologiesandfaith Perceptionistheprocessofselecting organizing andinterpretingsensorydatainawaythatenablesustomakesenseofourworld GambleandGamble P56 Twowaysthatcultureinfluencestheperceptionprocess 1 Perceptionisselective Whatisallowedinis inpart determinedbyculture 2 Yourperceptualpatternsarelearned perceptionisculturallydetermined Welearntoseetheworldinacertainwaybasedonourculturalbackground seeP57 58 1 1 Perception cultures 1 1 Perception cultures Perceptionsarestoredwithineachhumanbeingintheformofbeliefs values culturalpatterns 1 2 Beliefs 1 Whatarebeliefs Beliefsareourconvictionsinthetruthofsomething withorwithoutproof p58 2 Howdidyouacquirethem Beliefsareshapedbytheindividual sculture 3 Whatfunctiondotheyperform Beliefsareimportantbecausetheyareacceptedastruths Oneofthemostimportantfunctionsofbeliefsisthattheyformthebasisofyourvalues 1 2 Beliefs 4 Beliefsareusuallyreflectedinyouractionsandcommunicationbehavior Eg1 Agoodtan 棕褐色 isareflectionofahealthy activelifestyleandmakesapersonmoreattractive youwillprobably findtimetolieoutinthesunorevengotoatanningsalon 2 Suntannedskinreflectsalowsocialstatus youwillprobably makeanextraefforttoavoidexposingyourselftothesunbywearingahat long sleevedshirt andperhapsgloves andcarryinganumbrella onsunnydays 1 3Values 1 AValueisanenduringbeliefthataspecificmodeofconductorend stateofexistenceispersonallyorsociallypreferabletoanother 2 Valuesaresharedideasaboutwhatistrue right andbeautifulwhichunderlineculturalpatternsandguidesocietyinresponsetothephysicalandsocialenvironment Nanda Warms 3 Valuesarealearnedorganizationofrulesformakingchoicesandforresolvingconflicts 10 1 3Values 4 Hofstede Valuesare abroadtendencytoprefercertainstatesofaffairsoverothers E g evilvs good dirtyvs clean dangerousvs safe decentvs indecent uglyvs beautiful unnaturalvs natural abnormalvs normal paradoxicalvs logical irrationalvs rational moralvs immoral 1 3TheValueHierarchy SecondaryValues PrimaryValues US hospitalitytoguestscleanliness Alleviationofthepainandsufferingofotherssecuringmaterialpossessions Democracytheprotectionofoneselfandclosefamilymember TertiaryValues 12 1 3 Howtogetandwheretofindvalues Howtoget 1 fromone sfamily2 fromschoolteachers 3 fromone speers friends schoolmates playmates 4 fromsocietyatlarge 13 Wheretofind1 frompeople sbehaviorpattern2 fromwhatpeoplesayaboutthemselves 3 frommyths talesofheroesandrituals 4 fromfolktales movies proverbs sayings etc Individualism Equality Materialism Scienceandtechnology Progressandchange Workandleisure Competition USDominantculturalpatterns P62 65 2 CulturalPatterns 2 1Definitions 2 2Kluckhohn KluckhohnandStrodtbeckValueOrientation 2 3Hofstede sValuesDimension 3 ICStrategies 2 4Hall sContextOrientation 2 1CulturalPatterns Perceptionsarestoredwithineachhumanbeingintheformofbeliefs values culturalpatterns Culturalpatterntaxonomiesareusedtoillustratethedominantbeliefsandvaluesofaculture 17 2 Howtoclassifydifferentculturepatterns VariationsofValueStudies KluckhohnandStrodtbeck sValueOrientation Hofstede sDimensionsofCulturalVariability EdwardTHall sContext CultureTheory HumanNature Man nature Time Activity SocialRelationship IndividualismVsCollectivism UncertaintyAvoidance PowerDistance MasculinityVsFemininity High Context Low Context 2020 4 17 18 2 2ModelbyKluckhohn P74 79 5basicquestionsthatneedansweringattherootofanyculture 1 Whatisthecharacterofhumannature 2 Whatistherelationofmantonature 3 Whatistheorientationtowardtime temporalfocus 4 Whatisthemodeofhumanactivity 5 Whatisthemodeofhumanrelationship 1 Humannatureorientation人性取向2 Man natureorientation人与自然的关系取向3 Timeorientation时间取向4 Activityorientation行为取向5 Socialorientation人际取向 19 2 2KluckhohnandStrodtbeck sfivevalueorientations P74 20 2 2 1 HumanNature 1 Humannatureisevilbutperfectible WiththeinfluenceofChristianity Westernersbelievethathumannatureisbasicallyevilduetotheiroriginalsin However theevilnaturecanbesavedthroughsalvation ifonebelievesinJesusChristandcontinuesdoinggoodthings 21 2 Humannatureisamixtureofgoodandevil Asaresultoftheriseofhumanisminthewest theabovebasicbeliefhaschangedtooneseeinghumansasamixtureofgoodandevil Inotherwords everyonehasthegoodsideandbadside Therefore thereislawsysteminhumansocietytorewardthegoodinpeopleandpunishthebadandmakesurethatmenarenotdoinganythingevil 22 3 Humannatureisgoodbutcorruptible Good thephilosophiesofConfucianismandBuddhism InChina asinotherAsiansocietiesthathaveacceptedtheteachingofConfucius peoplearebelievedtobebasicallygood Childrenarebelievedtobepureandinnocentbutmaybecomecorruptedastheygrowolderandhavemorecontactwithsociety Theywillbebadiftheydon thavegoodeducationwhentheyareveryyoung 人之初 性本善 性相近 习相远 苟不教 性乃迁 Buddhismmaintainsthatyouarebornpureandareclosesttowhatiscalled lovingkindness whenyouenterthisworld Hence peoplearegood buttheircultureoftenmakesthemevil 23 2 2 2 man natureorientation 24 1 Subjugation 屈服 tonature Themostpowerfulforcesoflifearebeyondtheircontrol Whethertheforcebeagod fate ormagic apersoncannotovercomeitandmustthereforelearntoacceptit ThisorientationisfoundinIndiaandpartsofSouthAmerica FortheHindu becauseeverythingispartofaunifiedforce This oneness withtheworldhelpscreateavisionofaworldoperatinginharmony Eg someHindusectssuchastheBishoisdonotallowthecuttingdownofanytreesortheslaughterofanimals ThisisextremereverenceforNature whichhasprecedenceoverhumanactivities InMexicoandamongMexicanAmericans thereisastrongtietoCatholicismandtheroleoffateincontrollinglifeandnature 25 2 HarmonywithnatureTheharmonyviewiswidespreadandisassociatedwithEastAsians Chinesepeoplebelievethebalanceandharmonybetweenmanandnaturalworld ThisbeliefpermeatesineveryaspectofChineseculture Chinesemedicine forexample ismainlytoadjusttheunbalancedhumanbody InJapanandThailand thereisaperceptionthatnatureispartoflifeandnotahostileforcewaitingtobesubdued Thisorientationaffirmsthatpeopleshould ineverywaypossible liveinharmonywithnature ThedesiretobepartofnatureandnotcontrolithasalwaysbeenstrongamongAmericanIndians 26 3 MasteryovernatureWesternpeoplebelievetheyarethemastersofnature ThisvalueorientationischaracteristicoftheWesternapproach whichhasalongtraditionofvaluingtechnology change andscience Peoplewiththisorientationseeaclearseparationbetweenhumansandnature Americanshavehistoricallybelievedthatnaturewassomethingthatcouldandhadtobemastered EarlyWestEuropeanimmigrantstoNorthAmericaencounteredavast unforgivingwildernessthattheysetaboutto tame andmodernastronautsareworkingto conquer space 2 2 3 TimeorientationPastPresentFuture 1 PASTORIENTATION Past orientedcultures thepastshouldbetheguideformakingdecisionsanddeterminingtruth believestronglyinthesignificanceofpriorevents History establishedreligions andtraditionareextremelyimportanttotheseculturesTheFrenchlivesurroundedbythousandsofmonumentstotheirgloriouspast EveryquarterinParishasitshistoricallyimportantstatues buildings orfountains dailyremindersofpastachievements Frenchvillageshavestatuestolocalheroesandimportantpoliticalleaders Asaresultofthisconstantimmersioninhistory theFrenchtendtoseethingsintheirhistoricalcontextandrelatecontemporaryeventstotheirorigins 1 PASTORIENTATION China becauseofitslongandresplendenthistorycontinuestorespectthepast Respectfortheirhistoricalheritageisconsideredthemostimportanttraditionalvalue Theword old usuallysymbolizesexperienceandauthority 百年老店 老字号 InJapan whereShintoismisstrongandreverencetowardancestorsisimportant thepaststillremainsparamount GreatBritain becauseofitsdevotiontotradition includingthecontinuationofamonarchy resistschangeasitcontinuestovalueitshistoricalachievements TheFrench onmanylevels veneratethepastIntheUnitedStates AmericanIndiansvaluethepast 2 PRESENTORIENTATION Present orientedculturesholdthattheimmediatemomenthasthemostsignificance becausetheyseethefutureasvague ambiguous andunknown Forthesecultures whatisrealexistsinthehereandnow andthepresentshouldbeenjoyed PeopleofthePhilippinesandmostLatinAmericancountriesusuallyholdthesebeliefs MexicanAmericansalso prefertoexperiencelifeandpeoplearoundthemfullyinthepresent alsocharacteristicoftheAfrican Americanco culture 3 FUTUREORIENTATION Future orientedculturesemphasizewhatistocomeandexpectthefuturetobegranderandnicerthanthepresent Theword old isassociatedwith fallingbehind and uselessness while new isrelatedtoprogress changeandchallenge Peopleevenbelievetheycancontrolthefuture Futureorientationprevailsinthewesternculture SuchastheU S dominantculture Ifatfirstyoudon tsucceed try tryagain Yesterdayisnotourstorecover buttomorrowisourstowinortolose 2 2 4 ActivityorientationBeing 存在 anondevelopmentalmodelBeing in becoming 成为 aspiritualgoalofinnerharmonyandpeace Doing 做 activitythatleadstoexternalaccomplishments 1 BEINGORIENTATION Peopleinbeing orientatedculturesacceptpeople events andideasasflowingspontaneously Theystressrelease indulgenceofexistingdesires andworkingforthemoment MostLatinocultureshavetheviewthatthecurrentactivityistheonethatmattersthemost InMexico forexample peopletakegreatdelightinthesimpleactofconversationwithfamilyandfriends Mexicanswilltalkforhourswiththeircompanions fortheybelievethattheactof being isoneofthemaingoalsandjoysoflife 2 BEING IN BECOMINGORIENTATION Thebeing in becomingorientationstressestheideaofdevelopmentandgrowth Itemphasizesthekindofactivitythatcontributestothedevelopmentofallaspectsoftheselfasanintegralwhole Thisusuallycorrelateswithculturesthatvalueaspirituallifemorethanamaterialone Forexample inbothHinduismandBuddhism peoplespendaportionoftheirlivesinmeditationandcontemplationinanattempttopurifyandfullyadvancethemselves ManyoftheNewAgereligiousmovementsintheUnitedStatesalsostresstheneedtodevelopthebeing in becomingapproachtodailylife 3 DOINGORIENTATION Thekeytothisorientationisavaluesystemthatstressesactivityandaction ThedominantAmericanculture Americansareactionoriented theyarego getters Theygetgoing getthingsdone andgetahead InAmerica peoplegatherforaction toplaybasketball todance togotoaconcert andtotakerisks Whengroupsgathertheyplaygamesorwatchvideos ManyAmericansdon thavethepatiencetositdownandtalk Lifeisinconstantmotion 36 2 2 5 SocialOrientation 37 2 2 5 SocialOrientation Socialrelationships1 hierarchy Thismeanseachpersonhasapositioninahierarchy Peoplehaveclearlydefinedprivilegesandobligationsaccordingtotheirpositioninrelationtoothers Chinaisbasicallyahierarchicalsociety 38 2 GroupIncultureswithgroupvalues peoplemakedecisionsbyconsensus Eachperson ssocialidentitycomesfromhisorhergroups Loyaltyisimportantincultureswithgroupvalues 39 3 IndividualIncultureswithindividualisticvalues eachpersonisseenasautonomousandseparate Everyoneisequal Selfismoreimportantthangroup 40 2 3Hofstede sfiveValuedimensions Hofstede sworkwasoneoftheearliestattemptstouseextensivestatisticaldatatoexamineculturalvalues Duringthe1980s hesurveyedoverahundredthousandworkersinmultinationalorganizationsinfortycountries Thefindingsweretheresultofaresearchconductedinalargeenterprise IBM withitsbranchesin67countries 5dimensions powerdistanceuncertaintyavoidanceindividualism collectivismmasculinity femininitylaterdiscusseda5thdimension longtermview Asia 42 2 3 1 Individualismvs Collectivism Individualisticcultures I consciousnessindependence competition individualachievementCollectivistcultures We consciousness interdependence groupharmony groupcooperation 43 Individualorientedsociety alooselyknitsocialframework individualsaresupposedtotakecareofthemselves Theuniquenessofeachindividualisofparamountvalue ICulture Examples America NorthEuropeancountriesGrouporientedsociety atightlyknitsocialframework peoplecanexpecttheirin groups relatives clans tribesororganizations tolookafterthem WeCulture或I lessCulture Examples AsiancountriesandLatinAmericancountriesandMiddleEasterncountries 1Individualismvs Collectivism 44 2 3 1Individualismvs Collectivism individualism collectivism 45 2 3 1Individualismvs Collectivism Wecanfindmanyexamplesinourdailylife whichstressgroupbehaviorssuchas 我们都 Weall 深受大众喜爱 bewellpopular 老少皆宜 goodforallages 大家好 才是真好 theproductisgoodforall soitisindeedgood 全国用户满意 thecustomersalloverthecountryaresatisfied 46 2 3 1 Individualismvs Collectivism Thefollowingadvertisementsshowthisorientationclearly l Findyourownroad 2 Inthisageoftechnology sharing whateverhappenedtoindividuality 2 3 1individualism collectivismcontinuum AccordingtoHofstede sfindings seeTable5 1 theUnitedStates Australia GreatBritain Canada theNetherlands andNewZealandalltendtowardindividualism Goleman2 Incollectivesocieties suchasthoseinPakistan Colombia Venezuela Taiwan Peru andmuchofAfricaandAsia peoplearebornintoextendedfamiliesorclansthatsupportandprotecttheminexchangefortheirallegiance InmanyArabicnations tribalismpredominates lieinthemiddleofthecontinuum AfricanAmericansalsoexhibitcollectivism 49 2 3 1Individualismvs Collectivism Casestudy Atthenegotiatingtable differencesinthisdimensioncanclearlycauseseriousconflict AmericanstoooftenexpecttheirJapanesecounterpartstomakedecisionsrightatthenegotiatingtable andtheJapaneseareconstantlysurprisedtofindindividualmembersoftheAmericanteampromotingtheirownpositions decisions andideas sometimesopenlycontradictingoneanother America individualismJapan collectivism 2 3 2 UncertaintyAvoidance uncertaintyavoidance definestheextenttowhichpeoplewithinaculturearemadenervousbysituationswhichtheyperceiveasunstructured unclear orunpredictable situationswhichtheythereforetrytoavoidbymaintainingstrictcodesofbehaviorandabeliefinabsolutetruths Hofstede 2 3 2 UncertaintyAvoidance High uncertaintyavoidanceculturestrytoavoiduncertaintyandambiguitybyprovidingstabilityfortheirmembersthroughestablished formalsocialprotocols intoleranceofdeviantideasandbehaviors emphasizingconsensus andresistancetochange Theseculturesareoftencharacterizedbyrelativelyhighlevelsofanxietyandstress Hofstedesummarizestheviewofpeopleinhighuncertaintyavoidanceculturesas whatisdifferent isdangerous andthebeliefofpeopleinlowuncertaintyavoidanceculturesas whatisdifferent iscurious 52 2 3 2UncertaintyAvoidance HighUncertaintyAvoidance uncomfortablewithuncertaintyandambiguity intolerantwithdeviance ForExample Greece Belgium Portugal Japan Chile Israel SpainLowUncertaintyAvoidance practicecountsmorethanprinciples devianceismoreeasilytolerated Forexample Singapore Sweden Denmark Malaysia 53 RankingofUncertaintyAvoidance Alowscoremeansthecountrycanbeclassifiedasonethatdoesnotlikeuncertainty Thelowerscore thehigheruncertaintyavoidance 2 3 2 UncertaintyAvoidance NationswithastronguncertaintyavoidancetendencyareGreece Portugal Peru Belgium andJapan theotherendofthecontinuum wefindcountrieslikeSweden Denmark Ireland Norway theUnitedStates Finland andtheNetherlands 56 2 3 3 PowerDistance Powerdistanceis theextenttowhichthelesspowerfulmembersofinstitutionsandorganizationsacceptthatpowerisdistributedunequally Howdoyouinterprettherelationshipbetweenthefollowingpairsinbothhighandlowpowerdistanceculture parents childrenteacher studentboss employee 57 2 3 3 PowerDistance HighPDCulture PeoplewhoholdpowerandpeoplewhoareaffectedbypoweraresignificantlyfarapartVertical hierarchical everybodyhasarightfulplace E g India Brazil Singapore Greece Mexico etc LowPDCulture ThepowerholdersandpeopleaffectedbythepowerholdersaresignificantlycloserHorizontal inequalityinsocietyshouldbeminimized E g Austria Finland Denmark Norway NewZealand etc 2 3 3Powerdistance Peopleinhigh powerdistancecountriesbelievethatpowerandauthorityarefactsoflife Socialhierarchyisprevalentandinstitutionalizesinequality youfindagreatercentralizationofpower moreimportanceplacedonstatusandrank alargerproportionofsupervisorypersonnel astructuredvaluesystemthatdeterminestheworthofeachjob andsubordinatesadheringtoarigidhierarchy 2 3 3Powerdistance Low powerdistancecountriesholdthatinequalityinsocietyshouldbeminimizedBrislinnotes Culturesreferredtoas low powerdistance areguidedbylaws norms andeverydaybehaviorsthatmakepowerdistinctionsasminimalaspossible Peopleintheseculturesseehierarchyasaninequalityofrolesestablishedforconvenience 61 62 2 3 4Masculinityvs Femininity Cultureshighinthemasculinitydimensionfocusonachievement assertiveness heroism andmaterialsuccess regardingworkasmorecentraltoone slife performancesociety Cultureshighinthefemininitydimensionvalueinterpersonalrelationships nurturance modesty compassion caringfortheweakandqualityoflife welfaresociety 63 Japan Austria Venezuela Italy Switzerland Mexico Ireland thePhilippines GreeceareamongthecountrieswhereyoucanfindmanyofthemasculinevaluesdescribedbyHofstede seeTable5 4 NationssuchasSweden Norway theNetherlands Finland Denmarktendtowardafeminineworldview 2 3 4 Masculinityvs femininity 66 2 3 5 Long termversusshort termorientation Long termorientationisthe5thdimentionofHofstedewhichwasaddedtotheoriginalfourtotrytodistinguishthedifferencesinthinkingbetweentheEastandWest FromtheoriginalIBMstudies thisdifferencewassomethingthatcouldnotbededuced 演绎 Therefore HofstedecreatedaChinesevaluesurveywhichwasdistributedacross23countries Fromtheresults andwithanunderstandingoftheinfluenceoftheteachingsofConfuciusontheeasternAsiancountries long termvs short termorientationbecamethefifthculturaldimension Characteristicsareasfollows 67 1 Long termorientation长期导向emphasizes 1 Persistence2 Orderingrelationshipsbystatusandobservingthisorder3 Thrift4 Havingasenseofshame5 Valuingfuture 68 2 Short termorientation短期导向emphasizesPersonalsteadinessandstabilityProtectingyour face RespectfortraditionValuingpastandpresentFulfillingsocialobligations Long termorientation suchasChina HongKong Taiwan Japan andSouthKorea wouldmostlikelyhaveemployeeswhoreflectastrongworkethicandshowgreatrespectforstatusdiffere