土木工程英语.doc

Since normally elastic condition will prevail under working loads, a structural theory based on the assumption of elastic behavior is appropriate for determining serviceability conditions. Collapse of a structure will usually occur only long after the elastic range of the materials has been exceeded at critical points, so that an ultimate strength theory based on the inelastic behavior of the materials is necessary for a rational determination of the safety of a structure against collapse. Nevertheless, an elastic theory can he used to determine a safe approximation to the strength of ductile structures, and this approach is customarily followed in reinforced concrete practice.因为通常情况为准弹性工作荷载下，结构的基于弹性行为的假设理论是适用于正常状态。一个结构的崩溃将通常只很久以后材料的弹性范围已超过临界点的出现，使一个基于材料的非弹性行为的极限强度理论是一个抗破坏的结构的合理确定必要的安全。然而，弹性理论可以用来确定一个安全的近似球结构的强度，通常采用这种方法在钢筋混凝土中的实践。All structures are assemblies of three-dimensional members, the exact analysis of which is a forbidding task even under ideal conditions and is impossible to contemplate under conditions of professional practice. For this reason, an important part of the analysis work is the simplification of the actual structure and loading conditions to a model that is susceptible to rational analysis.所有的结构都是三维的构建，准确的分析是一个令人生畏的任务，即使在理想的条件下，是不可能专业实践的条件下考虑到的。为此，在分析工作中的一个重要组成部分的实际结构的简化和加载条件下的一个模型是敏感的理性分析。Thus, a structural framing system is decomposed into a slab and floor beams that in turn frame into girders carried by columns that transmit the loads to the foundations. Since traditional structural analysis has been unable to cope with the action of the slab, this has often been idealized into a system of strips acting as beams. Also, longhand methods have been unable to cope with three- dimensional framing systems, so that the entire structure has been modeled by a system of planar subassemblies, to be analyzed one at a time. The modern computing methods have revolutionized structural analysis by making it possible to analyze entire systems, thus leading to more reliable predictions about the behavior of structures under loads因此，一个结构框架系统分解为一个板和地板梁，框架柱，依次为传递荷载的基础抬梁。由于传统的结构分析已无法应对板的作用，这往往被理想化为一条，作为梁系统。同时，本方法已无法应付三维框架系统，使整个结构的平面组件系统模型，进行分析，在同一时间。现代计算方法已经彻底改变了结构分析使得能够分析整个系统，从而导致更可靠的预测，对荷载作用下结构的性能。.Actual loading conditions are also difficult both to determine and to express realistically, and must be simplified for the purpose of analysis. Thus, traffic loads on a bridge structure, which are essentially both of dynamic and random nature, are usually idealized into statically moving standard trucks, or distributed loads, intended to simulate the most severe loading conditions occurring in practice.实际荷载状态也是确定和表达的现实困难，必须分析的目的简化。因此，桥梁结构上的交通荷载，这是本质上是动力的和随机性的，通常理想为静动标准的卡车，或分布荷载，以用来模拟在实践中发生的最严重的负载条件。Similarly, continuous beams are sometimes reduced to simple beams, and rigid joints to pin joints; filler walls are neglected; shear walls are considered as beams, in deciding how to model a structure so as to make it reasonably realistic but at the same time reasonably simple, the analyst must remember that each such an idealization will make the solution more suspect. The more realistic the analysis, the greater will be the confidence it inspires, and the smaller may be the safety factor.同样，连续梁有时简化为简支梁和刚性连接；忽略填充墙；剪力墙视为梁，在决定如何建立一个结构，使其合理的现实的同时又简单，分析师必须记住每一个这样的一个理想化将使解更值得推敲。更现实的分析将是更加鼓舞人心的，使结构更加安全。The most important use of structural analysis is as a tool in structure design. As such, it will usually be a part of a trial-and-error procedure, in which an assumed configuration with assumed dead loads is analyzed, and the members are designed in accordance with the result of the analysis. This phase is called the preliminary design; since this design is still subject to change, usually a crude fast analysis method is adequate. At this stage, the cost of the structure is estimated, loads and member properties are revised, and the design is checked for possible improvements. The changes are now incorporated in the structure, a more refined analysis is performed, and the member design is revised.结构分析的最重要的用途是用于结构设计。因此，它通常是一个试错过程，对其中一个假定的静载荷进行了分析，判断其分析结果是否符合设计。这个阶段称为初步设计；由于这个设计仍然是随时变化的，通常是足够粗的快速分析方法。在这个阶段，估计结构的成本，修正荷载及构件特性，并检查可能的改进设计。将修正的结果纳入结构，从而进行更精细的分析，使构件设计更加合理。An efficient analyst must be able to reduce these to shortcut methods by appropriate assumptions, and must be aware of available design and analysis aids, as well as simplifications permitted by applicable building codes. An up-to-date analyst must likewise be versed in the bases of matrix structural analysis and its use in digital computers as well as in the use of available analysis programs or software.一个有效的分析师必须能够减少这些快捷方法，通过适当的假设，必须意识到现有的设计和分析工具，也要意识到这种简化必须符合现行的规范。最新的分析人员必须掌握结构矩阵分析的基本原理和数字计算机的应用以及熟悉使用现有的分析程序或软件。Geotechnical EngineeringGeotechnical engineering is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the engineering behavior of earth materials. Geotechnical engineering includes investigating existing subsurface conditions and materials; determining their physical/mechanical and chemical properties that are relevant to the project considered, assessing risks posed by site conditions; designing earthworks and structure foundations; and monitoring site conditions, earthwork and foundation construction.岩土工程是土木工程关住地球材料工程行为的分支。岩土工程包括调查现有地下条件和岩土材料;确定与物理/力学和化学性质相关的属性,评估场地条件引起的风险;设计土石方工程和结构基础;监测现场场地条件、土方和基础的建设。A typical geotechnical engineering project begins with a review of project and needs to define the required material properties. Then follows a site investigation of soil, rock, fault distribution and bedrock properties on and below an area of interest to determine their engineering properties including how they will interact with, on or in a proposed construction. Site investigations are needed to gain an understanding of the area in or on which the engineering will take place. Investigations can include the assessment of the risk to humans, property and the environment from natural hazards as earthquakes, landslides, sinkholes, soil liquefaction, debris flows and rock falls.一个典型的岩土工程项目需要从定义所需的材料特性开始。然后选取一个场地的调查土壤、岩石、断层分布和基岩属性,下面就一个关注的领域来确定其工程性质，主要包括这些性质之间的相互作用,或者提出建设。对工程将要建设的区域范围进行调查。调查包括人类的评估风险、财产和环境的自然灾害如地震、山体滑坡、溶洞、土壤液化、泥石流和岩石瀑布。A geotechnical engineer then determines and designs the type of foundations, earthworks, and/or pavement subgrades required for the intended man-made structures to be built. Foundations are designed and constructed for structures of various sizes such as high-rise buildings, bridges, medium to large commercial buildings, and smaller structures where the soil conditions do not allow code-based design.岩土工程师然后确定基础的类型和设计,土方工程和路面地基梁目的所需的人造建筑。基础是结构设计和建造各种大小的高层建筑、桥梁、中型到大型商业建筑和小结构的地基条件不允许超过规范的设计。Foundations built for above-ground structures include shallow and deep foundations. Retaining structures include earth-filled dams and retaining walls. Earthworks include embankments, tunnels, dikes, levees, channels, reservoirs, deposition of hazardous waste and sanitary landfills.地面上建筑物的基础包括浅基础和深基础。保留结构包括大坝和挡土墙回填土。土方工程包括堤防、隧道、堤坝,堤坝,渠道、水库、沉积的危险废物和安全填埋。Geotechnical engineering is also related to coastal and ocean engineering. Coastal engineering can involve the design and construction of wharves, marinas, and jetties. Ocean engineering can involve foundation and anchor systems for offshore structures such as oil platforms. 岩土工程也与近海和海洋工程有关。海岸工程包括码头的设计和施工，港口，码头。近海海洋工程包括基础和锚固系统结构如石油平台。The fields of geotechnical engineering and engineering geology are closely related, and have large areas of overlap. However, the field of geotechnical engineering is a specialty of engineering, where the field of engineering geology is a specialty of geology.岩土工程和工程地质领域密切相关,并有大量重叠的地方。然而,岩土工程领域是一个专业的工程,在工程地质是地质的专业领域。Road ConstructionOnce the road authority has decided to construct new major road, then it will employ either its own engineers or a consulting engineer to survey the alternative routes and carry out the road design. Information is required, for each of the possible routes, about the detailed ground levels of the terrain, which can now be obtained by aerial photography which is accurate to 6 inch. Details of the types of material for the construction of embankments, and of the geological strata, must be obtained from trial pits and bore boles taken along the line of route and at bridge sites, flute local climatic conditions, such as fog, frost and rain, must also be established. In developed countries, information is required about land values and various environmental factors which may need public enquiries.一旦公路管理局决定构造新的主要的道路,那么它将使用自己的工程师或咨询工程师调查选择路线和开展道路设计。信息是必需的,对于每一个可能的路线,详细的地面水平的地形,现在可以通过航空摄影是精确到6英寸。的细节类型的材料堤防建设,和地质层次,必须从试验中获得的坑,起了树干的路线,在桥网站,长笛当地气候条件,如雾、霜雨,还必须建立。在发达国家,信息需要对地价和各种环境因素可能需要公众查询。From the survey information, the line and the level of each of the possible roads will be chosen in accordance with the standard of gradient, sight lines anti other factors laid down by the traffic authority. This should minimize the amount of material which has to be excavated and carried to “fill” the adjacent embankments. It is also important to keep to a minimum the size of the bridges needed to cross the railways, rivers and other roads. Taking into account these various factors, the choice of route is made and the design is carried out.调查信息,和水平的每个可能道将按照标准梯度,视线反交通管理局规定的其他因素。这应该最小化的材料数量已被发掘,“填补”相邻的堤防。同样重要的是需要将穿越铁路、河流和其他道路的大小桥梁降低到最小。考虑到各种因素,进行路线的选择和设计。Arrangements are then made to purchase the land on which the road will run. Detailed drawings, specifications and bills of quantities are prepared that contractors can tender, normally in competition with each other, for the construction of the work. The consulting engineer or highway authority will usually provide a resident engineer and site staff to ensure that the work is carried out by the successful contractor in accordance with the drawings and specifications. Within the requirements of the design, the contractor will be responsible for deciding upon the methods of construction to be used.然后为购买土地,将运行的道路做出安排。通常承包商需要在招投标工作中准备详细的图纸,规范和工程量清单。咨询工程师或高速公路管理局网站通常会提供一个本地工程师和员工，以确保承包商的道路工作是按照图纸和规范要求进行。在设计的要求,承包商将负责决定建筑使用的方法。When the construction team moves on to the site, it is first necessary to clear the line of the new road and fence it where animals may stray on to the works. Trees are cut down, stumps and rocks are grubbed up by bulldozer or where necessary, blasted out by explosives. It may also necessary to build temporary haul roads and bridges or fords at the site of the river bridges.当施工队伍移动网站,首先需要明确的新道路和围墙,动物可能会迷路的。树木被砍伐,树桩和岩石被推土机或在必要时进行爆破。它也可能需要建立临时运输道路和桥梁或福特现场河的桥梁。The base of embankments and the slopes of cuttings must be protected from the action of ground water which could cause them to collapse. A primary drainage system is therefore constructed before starting earthworks along the length of the mad to cut off the nature ground drainage, and prevent it from entering the works. This is usually done by digging a shallow cut-off ditch with a hydraulic excavator which has a shaped bucket. At the low point of the nature ground, the water flowing in these ditches is taken across the road line in piped or reinforced concrete culverts and allowed to flow away through the existing streams or ditches.堤坝的基础和开挖后边坡上的岩石在地下水的作用下可能会导致崩溃。因此在土方工程开始前需要沿长度设置排水系统切断自然地面排水,并防止它进施工场地。这通常是通过与液压挖掘机挖出一条浅截止沟形状的桶。低点的自然地面,这些沟渠的水流过马路、管道或钢筋混凝土涵洞、最后流到现有的流或沟渠。The topsoil is first stripped and stacked ready for spreading on the slopes of cuttings and embankments towards the end of construction. This work is usually done with caterpillar tractors towing box scrapers. The main cutting and embankment work is then started, using rubber-tyred scraper. These are single or twin-engined machines which have horizontal blades that can be lowered to cut a slice of earth from the ground and collect this earth in the bowl of the scraper. When the scraper bowl is full (some machines can carry up to 50 cubic yards (38.2 m3), blade is raised and the loaded scraper travels to the “tip” area on the embankment. Particularly in hard digging, it is necessary for the scraper loading operation to be assisted by a pusher bulldozer which pushes the scraper while it is loading to speed up the operation. For certain types of material, such as chalk, which may soften in wet weather, or when the excavated material has to be carried for more than two mile (3 km), the excavation may be done using face shovel excavators loading into dump trucks. When rock is encountered, this is first shattered with explosives and then loaded by