法律英语第九课 合同法

2020/5/5,法律英语,1,LessonNineContractLaw,2020/5/5,法律英语,2,Thewebofthelaw,Maynotbequiteseamless法律之网可能并非结实无缝Theyarenotironcladandunchanging法律并非打不破和不可改变。,2020/5/5,法律英语,3,ContractDefinition,Acontractisbasicallyanagreementbetweentwoormorepeoplewhichcreatesanobligationtodo,ornotdo,something.Theagreementcreatesalegalrelationshipofrightsandduties.Iftheagreementisbroken,thenthelawprovidescertainremedies.,2020/5/5,法律英语,4,ThreeFactors,Therearethreefactorsnecessarytocreateacontract:1)anoffer,2)acceptance,and3)consideration.Onepartymakesanoffer,thesecondpartymustaccepttheofferandtheremustbeconsiderationexchanged.Considerationhastobesomethingofvalue.,2020/5/5,法律英语,5,ExampleofContracts,EmploymentcontractsServiceContractsBuildingConstructionInsuranceContractsContractinvolvingrealpropertySaleofIntangibles(stocks,bonds,patents,copyrights,etc),2020/5/5,法律英语,6,Contractlaw,Contractlawcoversthelegalimplicationsofacontract.Forinstance,contractlawdetermineswhatisandisnotconsideration,whetheracontractwasactuallyintended,ifthepartiesmakingthecontractwerelegallycompetent,whethertherewasfraudorduressinvolved,orhowacontractisterminated.,2020/5/5,法律英语,7,Background,UniformCommercialCodeConsumerProtectionStatutesLaborLawInsuranceLaw,涉及合同问题,2020/5/5,法律英语,8,美国合同法,2020/5/5,法律英语,9,reliefintheformofspecificperformance特殊履行的救济方式theinjunction禁令（临时或最终的采取或不采取某种行为的命令）thedevelopmentofsocalledmaximsofequitylaw形成所谓的衡平法座右铭,Specialcharacteristicsofequitylaw：,2020/5/5,法律英语,10,However,equitablereliefregularlywilllieonlywhenthecommonlawreliefisinadequate.不过，只有当普通法救济不充分时，才适用衡平救济。,2020/5/5,法律英语,11,Forinstance,specificperformanceforthepurchaseofrealpropertywillbegrantedbecausecommonlawdamagesaredeemedtobeinadequatesincetheycannotcompensatethebuyerinviewoftheuniquenessattributedtorealproperty.例如，对购买不动产提供特殊履行的救济，因为普通法的赔偿被认为不充分，由于不动产具有特殊性，普通法的赔偿无法补偿买方。,2020/5/5,法律英语,12,假如房屋的卖方于成交后出尔反尔了，那么买方按普通法原则之规定得提出损害赔偿之诉。但买方如要求强制卖方出售（即要求履行），则买方则援引的是衡平法上的原则了。Supposethatavendorofhousebacksoutonthedeal.Thevendeemaysuefordamagesundercommon-lawprinciples,butifhewantsacourttoforcethesellertosell(specificperformance)heusesprinciplesdevelopedinequity.,2020/5/5,法律英语,13,“ordinary”commonlawreliefofdamages普通法规定的赔偿金救济,“extraordinary”equityremedyofspecificperformance衡平法规定的特定履行救济,2020/5/5,法律英语,14,TEXT,Contractanagreementbetweentwoormorepersons.Notmerelyasharedbelief不仅仅是共有的想法Acommonunderstandingastosomething而且是对某些未来将要进行的事项有共同的理解,2020/5/5,法律英语,15,Contract,DocumentThesetofpapersinwhichsuchagreementissetforth.文件陈述契约的一系列文件。,2020/5/5,法律英语,16,Forlawyers,Contract-anagreementthathaslegaleffect.合同是具有法律效力的契约。Itcreatesobligationsforwhichsomesortoflegalenforcementwillbeavailableifperformanceisnotforthcomingaspromised.它设立了当不按约履行时，便可由某种法律强制手段保证实施的义务。,2020/5/5,法律英语,17,Threeelementsinatransactioncontract,1.Theagreement-in-fact事实协议2.Theagreement-in-written书面协议3.Thesetofrightsandduties一系列权利与义务,2020/5/5,法律英语,18,THEWAYS订立协议和执行协议的方法,Theroleoflawyersandjudges1.Increatingcontracts在制定合同中的作用；2.indecidingdisputesthatmayarisewithrespecttotheirperformance在裁决履行合同时可能出现争议时的作用；3.infashioningappropriateremediesfortheirbreach在形成对其违约的适当补救时的作用,2020/5/5,法律英语,19,Property,Agreatofthingaresusceptible“ownership”,2020/5/5,法律英语,20,Ring,bulldozer,Gonewiththewind,TheEmpireStateBuilding,2020/5/5,法律英语,21,Rights,国家保护该“所有人”使用、享受乃至耗费该物的权利，将所有其他人排除在这种权利之外。,Exclusion,2020/5/5,法律英语,22,Realproperty,不动产,Land,buildings,动产personalproperty,2020/5/5,法律英语,23,realproperty:allland,structures,firmlyattachedandintegratedequipment,anythinggrowingontheland,andallinterestsintheproperty.personalproperty(personalty):movableassets(things,includinganimals)whicharenotrealproperty,moneyorinvestments.,2020/5/5,法律英语,24,Lesstangibleproperty不太有形的资产,Copyrights版权Patents专利权Sharesofcorporatestock公司股权Negotiableinstruments票据权,2020/5/5,法律英语,25,Anysocialthat,Recognizespropertyrights,Alsoaddressthequestionofhowitshouldrespondwhensomeoneviolatesthoserights,2020/5/5,法律英语,26,Evensocietiesthatdonotpermitprivateownershipofwealthtothedegreethatoursdoesarelikelytorecognizethepersonalrightsofindividualstobefreefromcertainkindsofconduct即使是那些对财产私有权的许可没有达到我们这种程序的社会，也会承认个人的人身权利不受某种行为的侵犯。,2020/5/5,法律英语,27,certainkindsofconduct,给人造成身体伤害其他对个人自由或尊严的侵犯,Inflictionofphysicalinjury,Otherinterferenceswithfreedomordignity,2020/5/5,法律英语,28,Criminallawvs.tortlaw,Criminallawfocusesinthoseviolationsofpersonalandpropertyrightsthatsocietydeemsseriousenoughtobedeterredbythethreatofseverepunishmentfortheircommission,Tortlawconsiderswhatremedyshouldbemadetotheindividualssoinjured,2020/5/5,法律英语,29,Treason判国罪Taxevasion偷税罪,Slander诽谤,2020/5/5,法律英语,30,Ownershipofproperty,Includetherighttouseandconsumethethingowned所有权包括对属于自己的物品使用和耗费的权利bemoretotheadvantageoftheownertotransfertherightoftheownershiptosomeotherpersoninexchangeforsomethingelseofvalue有时所有者以所有权与其他人交换有价值的东西可能更有利。,2020/5/5,法律英语,31,2020/5/5,法律英语,32,Agreementsforexchangearethemeansbywhichsomeresourcesareassembledandputtoproductiveuse.交换的契约是将一些资源组合起来，使之得到有效利用的手段。,2020/5/5,法律英语,33,Someagreementforexchangecallfortheimmediateandsimultaneousexchangeofmoneyforgoodsandservices.有效交换契约要求现金与货物、服务的立即和同时交换。,2020/5/5,法律英语,34,Exchangeofsignificantsize涉及到大额交易时,Boththeplanningandperformancetobespreadoveraconsiderableperiodoftime交易的计划和履行都要经历相当长的时间。,2020/5/5,法律英语,35,Thelawofcontracts,Legalmechanismforprotectingtheexpectationsthatarisefromthemakingofagreementsforthefutureexchangeofvarioustypesofperformance.合同法是保护预期的法律机制，该预期产生于就未来交易各类履行而制定的契约。,2020/5/5,法律英语,36,Legalproblemsdonotalwaysfitneatlyintothepigeonholesthatlegaltheoristshavecreated.法律问题不可能总是与法理学家所创立的分类完全相符。Frequentlytheyraiseissuesinvolvingmorethanonebodyoflaw.法律问题往往涉及到不止一部法律。,2020/5/5,法律英语,37,“fraud”conduct欺诈行为,Leaseagreementsbetweenlandlordandtenant,2020/5/5,法律英语,38,Thewebofthelaw,Maynotbequiteseamless法律之网可能并非结实无缝Theyarenotironcladandunchanging法律并非打不破和不可改变。,2020/5/5,法律英语,39,Source/authority法律渊源,以前的司法判决成文法法令,劝导性法源法学家的解释美国法学会的法律注释汇编,2020/5/5,法律英语,40,首要法源,2020/5/5,法律英语,41,次要法源,2020/5/5,法律英语,42,WhatareRestatementsoftheLaw法律注释汇编,Restatementsaresecondarysourcesthatseektorestatethelegalrulesthatconstitutethecommonlawinaparticulararea.TheyarewrittenbytheAmericanLawInstitute(ALI),aprestigiouslegalorganizationcomposedofnotedprofessors,judgesandlawyers.TheALIhascompletedRestatementsin15areasoflawincludingTorts,Contracts,Property,ConflictofLaws,ForeignRelationsLaw,andProductsLiability.,2020/5/5,法律英语,43,Contractlaw,CommonlawJudge-madelaw法官定法Rulesdistilledfromacompositeofcourtdecisionsinpriorcases.从以前案件的各种法官判决意见中抽取出来的规则,2020/5/5,法律英语,44,Technicaljargon专业术语,Assumpsit口头约定Quantummeruit按合理价格给付,Consideration对价Offer要约,2020/5/5,法律英语,45,Judicialsystemofdecision-making司法决策体制,Staredecisis遵从前例adherencetopastdecisions(Precedents)Apriordecisionwithfactssufficientlysimilartothecase“subjudice”,thatthecourtfeelsobligedtofollowitandtorenderasimilardecision.以前案例的事实与尚未判决的案件事实非常相似，法院认为有义务按照前例做出类似的判决。,2020/5/5,法律英语,46,Doctrineofstaredecisis,Whereprecedentmerelyrequiresthatcourtslooktopreviousdecisionsforguidance,staredecisisrequiresthatacourtfollowtheirowndecisionsandthedecisionsofhighercourtswithinthesamejurisdiction.Forexample,intheU.S.,astatetrialcourtmustallowitsowndecisionsandthedecisionsofappellatecourtsinthatstate;anintermediateappellatecourtmustfollowitsowndecisionsandthedecisionsofthestateshighestappellatecourt.FederalcourtsofappealmustgenerallyfollowtheirownpriordecisionsandthoseoftheU.S.StatesSupremeCourt,buttheyarenotboundbydecisionsoffederaldistrictcourtsorotherappellatecourts.,2020/5/5,法律英语,47,Termsandpropernames,TwotypesofjudicialprecedentsBindingprecedent:Wherethedoctrineofstaredecisisapplies,precedentisbindingandacourtsoptionsarelimited.Acourtmustharmonizetheresultinthepresentcasewithpastdecisions.Onlyafterexplainingwhypreviouscasesareinapplicablemayacourtfashionnewrulesormodifyexistingones.Acourtmayneverignoreorcontradictbindingprecedent.Persuasiveprecedent:Wherethedoctrineofstaredecisisisnotapplicable,aswithdecisionsfromotherjurisdictionsorlowercourtsinthesamejurisdiction,courtsarefreetofollowpreviousdecisionsorignorethem.Althoughcourtsarenotboundbysuchdecisions,theyremainpersuasivebecausetheirreasoningcanilluminatepossiblesolutionstoaproblem.,2020/5/5,法律英语,48,Staredecisis,Latinfortostandbythingsdecided.Staredecisisisessentiallythedoctrineofprecedent.Courtscitetostaredecisiswhenanissuehasbeenpreviouslybroughttothecourtandarulingalreadyissued.Generally,courtswilladheretothepreviousruling,thoughthisisnotuniversallytrue.,2020/5/5,法律英语,49,2020/5/5,法律英语,50,从两个方面证明以判例法为主要依据的法律制度的合法性,1.Offersahighdegreeofpredictabilityofdecision提高了判决的可预见性程度2.Putsareinonthenatureproclivityofjudgestodecidecasesonthebasisofprejudice,personalemotion,orotherimproperfactors.限制法官在案件判决时以偏见、个人情感或其他不恰当因素为基础的自然癖好。,2020/5/5,法律英语,51,2020/5/5,法律英语,52,Thecharacteristicofasystem,Whichmaysometimesbeavirtue,sometimesadefect,ofbeingstaticandconservative,generallyorientedtowardpreservationofthestatusquo.遵从前例的制度的特征是静止和守旧，总体上趋向于保持现状，这有时是优点，有时是缺点。,2020/5/5,法律英语,53,案例法的优点，灵活性和成长的能力，随着一件件新的案件告到法院，一个个新的判决也就补充起来。这样法律就能跟上时代的步伐并适应不断变化的客观情况。案例法的害处，就是上述优点的反而。例如边沁曾对事后立法原则加以指责并称判例制度为狗法，他说：“是法官们在制度共同法，你知道他们是怎么样制定的吗？就同一个人替他的那条狗立法一样，狗做了人不让做的事情，人们事先袖手旁观，然后在事发后揍他。这是人替狗立法的方法，也是法官替你我立法的方式。Theadvantageofthecaselawisthepowerofflexibilityandgrowth.Newdecisionsareconstantlybeingaddedasnewcasescomebeforethecourts.Inthiswaythelawtendstokeeppacewiththetimesandcanadaptitselftochangingcircumstances.Thedrawbacksofcaselawinsomecasesmerelytheconverseaspectsoftheadvantages.Forexample,jeremybenthamcriticisedtheprincipleofthelawfollowingtheeventdogslawsystem,itis,hesays,thejudgesthatmakethecommonlaw,doyouknowhowtheymakeit?justasamanmakeslawsforhisdog,whenyourdogdoessomethingyouwanttobreakhimof,youwaittillhedoesitandthenbeathim,thisisthewayyoumakelawsforyourdog,thisisthewaythejudgemakeslawsforyou.,2020/5/5,法律英语,54,案例法受的另一个指责，则是先例的的拘束力限制了审判上的裁量，有人还说，法官们是在替自己铸造脚镣。这一点可以用共同受雇说来加以说明，此说是由上议院在普里斯特告福尔一案中所规定的（1837），它说，如果两人在受雇范围内行事时，其中一人被同事伤害了，那么他俩的雇主对这一疏忽不代为负责。在工业大发展时期运用这一规则，是极不公道的。但是这条规则在（1948年人身伤害法律改良法）予以废除前，却拘束了法官百多年之久。这其间，法官能做的，只是限制这一规则的运用。Afurthercriticismisthatthebindingforceofprecedentlimitsjudicialdiscretion.Ithasbeensaidthatjudgesareengagedinforgingfettersfortheirownfeet.Thiscanbeillustratedbythedoctrineofcommonemployment.WhichwaslaiddownbythehouseoflordsinPriestleyv.Fowler(1837).Thisdoctrinesaidthatifaemployeewasinjuredbyafellowemployeewhilstbothwereactingwithinthescopeoftheiremployment,theiremployerwasnotliablevicariouslyforthenegligence.theruleoperatedinamostunjustfasionduringtheperiodofgreatindustrialdevelopment,butitcontinuedtobindjudgesforoveracenturyuntilitwasfinallyabolishedbytheLawReform(PersonalInjuries)Act,1948.allthejudgescoulddointhemeantimewastolimititsscope.,2020/5/5,法律英语,55,Blindadherence,Whenacommonlawjudgeconcludesthatblindadherencetoprecedentwouldproduceanunjustresultinthecasepresentedfordecision.普通法法官盲目坚持判例，也会导致对当前案例判决的不公正结果。,2020/5/5,法律英语,56,避免的方法：,Aprecedentisconsideredtobe“binding”onacourtonlyifitwasdecidedbythatsamecourtorbyanappellatecourtofhigherrankinthesamejurisdiction.同一个管辖区的相同法院或其上级巡回法院作出的先例判决才有约束力。Otherprecedentsarebe“persuasive”.其他判例只具有劝导性。,2020/5/5,法律英语,57,Aprecedent,Ifaprecedentofthelattertypeisinfactunpersuasive,thejudgeisfreetodisregardit.如果后一种类型的判例实际上没有劝导性，法官可以忽视该判例。,2020/5/5,法律英语,58,Iftheprecedentisnotmerelypersuasive,butbinding,itcannotsimplybeignored.Itmay,however,beavoided.如果判例不仅有劝导性而且有约束力，那么该判例不能简单地被忽视，但却可以被回避。,Aprecedent,2020/5/5,法律英语,59,Ifthefactsofthepresentcasedonotincludeafactthatappearstohavebeennecessary(“material”)totheearlierdecision,thecourtmay“distinguish”theprecedent,renderadifferentdecision.如果以前判决不包含对当前案例有实质必要影响的事实，那么法院可以“区别”前例，提出不同的判决。,Aprecedent,2020/5/5,法律英语,60,Iftheearlierprecedentisindeedbinding,butisdifficultorimpossibletodistinguish,thereisoneotherwaytoavoiditseffect.如果比较早的判例确实有约束力，但是难以或无法区别，有一个其他方法避免其效力。,Aprecedent,2020/5/5,法律英语,61,Ifthecourtofdecisionistheonethatcreatedtheprecedent(orisahighercourt),itcansimply“overrule”theearlydecision.如果判决的法院与作出先例的法院相同，或者比作出先例的法院等级高，它可以“推翻”以前的判决。,Aprecedent,2020/5/5,法律英语,62,2020/5/5,法律英语,63,Overrulingrelativelydrasticaction,Isusuallyreservedforinstancesinwhichthecourtfeelsthattheruleestablishedbytheearlierprecedentwasillconceivedattheoutsetorithasbeenoutmodedbythelaterdevelopments.推翻前例是个比较激烈的行为，一般在法院觉得以前的判例一开始就设计错误时或者随着以后的发展该判例不合时宜时才采用。,2020/5/5,法律英语,64,Contractlaw,Historically,ascommonlaw普通法Ratherthanstatute制定法Exception:“statuteoffrauds”“欺诈条例”是个例外,Requirescertaincontractstobeevidencedbyasignedwriting该条例要求某些合同是书面合同。,2020/5/5,法律英语,65,Statuteoffrauds,Lawineverystatewhichrequiresthatcertaindocumentsbeinwriting,suchasrealpropertytitlesandtransfers(conveyances),leasesformorethanayear,willsandsometypesofcontracts.TheoriginalstatutewasenactedinEnglandin1677topreventfraudulenttitleclaims.,2020/5/5,法律英语,66,Statuteoffrauds,Thestatuteoffraudshasitselfbecomesooverlaidbycourtdecisionsthatithasmoreofqualityofcommonlawthanofamodernstatute.该欺诈条例本身已添加了如此多的法官判决意见，以至于它具有的普通法的品质已经超过其现代制定法的品质。,2020/5/5,法律英语,67,Contractlaw,Essentiallyacommonlawsystem,exceptbeaffectedbyaremarkablemodernstatute,theUniformCommercialCode.除非受到著名的现代制定法统一商法典的影响，合同法至今还保留着普通法体系。,2020/5/5,法律英语,68,Whenacourtdecidedacasegovernedbyastatute,itsreasoningdiffersfromthatusedwhencommonlawprinciplesareapplied.当法院依照制定法判案时，法院的推论与采用普通法原则时是不同的。,2020/5/5,法律英语,69,Statute,Anycourt,eventhehighestcourtofthejurisdiction,isboundtofollowtheprovisionsofavalidstatutethatapplytothedisputebeforeit.所有法院甚至最高法院都要依据有效的制定法条款规定来处理提交到它面前的争议。,2020/5/5,法律英语,70,Fundamentalpoliticaltenet,Thelegislaturehasultimatelawmakingpowersolongasitsactswithintheboundsofitsconstitutionalauthority.社会基本政治原则：只要在宪法授权的范围之内，立法机关有最终的立法权。,Modify修改,Eliminate废除,2020/5/5,法律英语,71,对制定法文字有不同的解释,Courtsseektoascertainthelegislaturespurposeinenactingit,inordertoadoptaconstructionthatwillbesteffectuatethatpurpose.法院试图确定立法机关的意图，以便采用能最好地实现该意图的解释。,Legislativehistory,2020/5/5,法律英语,72,AmericanLawInstitute,Formedin1923.Preparationandpromulgationofwhatpurportedtobeaccurateandauthoritativesummariesoftherulesofcommonlawinvariousfields美国法律协会准备和发布各领域精确的权威的普通法规则汇编。,Restatement注释汇编,2020/5/5,法律英语,73,AmericanLawInstitute,TheAmericanLawInstitute(ALI)wasestablishedin1923todefine,summarize,orrestateexistingcommonlaw.Between1923and1944,Restatementswereadoptedforthelawofagency,conflictoflaws,contracts,judgments,property,restitution,security,torts,andtrusts.,2020/5/5,法律英语,74,TheRestatementofContracts,合同法注释汇编Thefirstandmostsuccessful“restatement”AcceptanceandusebythebenchandbarAdoptedbyALIin1932.,2020/5/5,法律英语,75,TheRestatement,Consistsof“black-letter”statementsofthe“generalrule”关于“一般规则”的“黑体字”陈述Supportedwithatleastsomecommentaryandillustration至少有几个注释和例证作补充Donthavetheforceoflaw没有法律效力,2020/5/5,法律英语,76,TheRestatements,Secondaryauthority次要法源Remarkablypersuasive非常有说服力Acourtoftenjustifyitsdecisionbysimplyc