CHP4__DURKHEIM’S_SOCIOLOGISM

CHP4DURKHEIMSSOCIOLOGISM,SOCIOLOGISMTHEMETHODSOFSOCIOLOGYSOCIALSOLIDARITYANDDIVISIONOFLABORSOCIALINTEGRATIONANDSUICIDEELEMENTARYFORMSOFRELIGIOUSLIFE,SOCIOLOGISM,（一）社会学主义或秉承社会学主义的社会学家都具有以下特征：1秉承社会学的自然主义；(scientist)2强调社会事实的特性；(cannotreducetoindividual)3认定社会学是自主的和自我满足的学科；4认为社会学是一门根本性的社会科学；5力求克服进化论的观点。,SOCIOLOGISM,（二）DURKHEIM的生平1858年生于法国东部犹太人居住的飞地；祖父与父亲都是犹太教徒，而他却在天主教女教师影响下转向天主教；1879进入法国知识精英的摇篮巴黎高等师范学校；波尔多大学任教15年；期间创办法国社会学年鉴；1913在巴黎索邦学院创办欧洲第一个社会学系；1915年晚年丧子，1917年58岁西归。,THEMETHODSOFSOCIOLOGY,（一）社会学的研究对象社会事实SOCIALFACTS:Thoseaspectsofsociallifethatcannotbeexplainedintermsofthebiologicalormentalcharactericofindividual.Peopleexperiencethesocialfactasexternaltothemselvesinthesensethatithasanindependentrealityandformsapartoftheirobjectiveenvironment.,THEMETHODSOFSOCIOLOGY,（一）社会学的研究对象社会事实TYPESOFSOCIALFACTSMATERIALSOCIALFACTS：SOCIETY(社会)；THEPARTSOFTHESOCIETY(社会构成部分)；THEFORMOFSOCIETY(社会形态部分)NONMATERIALSOCIALFACTS：MORALITY(道德)；COLLECTIVECONSCIENCE(集体意识)；SOCIALTIDE(社会潮流),THEMETHODSOFSOCIOLOGY,（二）社会事实的三个特征外在性（先于人而存在）强制性（带有一定的集体性）普遍性（结婚率、死亡率、出生率等）,THEMETHODSOFSOCIOLOGY,（三）解释社会事实的原则必须把社会事实看作“事物”；社会事实能够而且只能依据别的事实来解释；对社会事实的完整解释应包括因果分析和功能分析，但应区别事物的原因与功能。求证原则，即比较原则。认为社会学研究应包括“假设-推测-检验”过程。,SOCIALSOLIDARITYANDDIVISIONOFLABOR,（一）社会团结社会团结与社会内聚力、社会整合的含义大体相同，指的是把个体结合在一起的社会纽带，是一种建立在共同情感、道德、信仰或价值观基础上的个体与个体、个体与群体、群体与群体之间的，以结合或吸引为特征的联系状态。社会团结研究的前人基础：卢梭的社会契约论认为社会团结是处于自然状态的自我为了共同的利益而相互订立契约；孔德的国家强力说认为国家依赖强制性力量将社会成员个体“束缚”在一起；斯宾塞的自由竞争论认为每一个社会成员都有同等的追求个人利益的权利，而每个人的利益又只能在他人那里获得满足，由这种平等的竞争就形成了社会。,SOCIALSOLIDARITYANDDIVISIONOFLABOR,THETYPESOFSOCIALSOLIDARITYMechanicalSolidarity:Aformofsocialintegrationthatcharacterizedearlysocietiesinwhichasenseofonenesswasderivedfromthefactthatallthemembersofthesocietyengagedinessentiallysimilartasks.机械团结：是这样一种社会联贯纽带，它通过强烈的集体意识将同质性的个体结合在一起。OrganicSolidarity:Aformofsocialintegrationthatcharacterizesmodernsocieties.Asocietyisheldtogetherbytheinterdependencefosteredbythedifferenceamongpeople.有机团结：是一种建立在社会成员异质性和相互依赖基础上的社会联结纽带，是建立在社会分工基础上的团结类型。,SOCIALSOLIDARITYANDDIVISIONOFLABOR,SOCIALSOLIDARITYANDDIVISIONOFLABOR,REPRESSIVEANDRESTITUTIVELAWREPRESSIVELAWDurkheimarguedthatasocietywithmechanicalsolidarityischaracterizedbyrepressivelaw.Becausepeopleareverysimilarinthistypeofsociety,andbecausetheytendtobelieveverystronglyinacommonmorality,anyoffenseagainsttheirsharedvaluesystemislikelytobeofsignificancetomostindividuals.Sinceeveryonefeelstheoffenseandbelievesdeeplyinthecommonmorality,awrongdoerislikelytobepunishedseverelyforanyactionthatoffendsthecollectivemoralsystem.Theftmightleadtothecuttingoffoftheoffendershands;blasphemingmightresultintheremovalofonestongue.Evenminoroffensesagainstthemoralsystemarelikelytobemetwithseverepunishment.,SOCIALSOLIDARITYANDDIVISIONOFLABOR,REPRESSIVEANDRESTITUTIVELAWRESTITUTIVELAWAsocietywithorganicsolidarityischaracterizedbyrestitutivelaw,whereoffendersmustmakerestitutionfortheircrimes.Insuchsocieties,offensesaremorelikelytobeseenascommittedagainstaparticularindividualorsegmentofsocietythanagainstthemoralsystemitself.Becausethereisaweakcommonmorality,mostpeopledonotreactemotionallytoabreachofthelaw.Insteadofbeingseverelypunishedforeveryoffenseagainstthecollectivemorality,offendersinanorganicsocietyarelikelytobeaskedtomakerestitutiontothosewhohavebeenharmedbytheiractions.Althoughsomerepressivelawcontinuestoexistinasocietywithorganicsolidarity(forexample,thedeathpenalty),restitutivelawpredominates,especiallyforminoroffenses.,SOCIALSOLIDARITYANDDIVISIONOFLABOR,DANGERSMODERNSOCIETYFACING1社会解组指由于失去了社会联系，社会整体蜕变为一种个体间相互分裂的原子式堆积的状态。2反常分工对社会团结的破坏A分工增长速度过快；B强制性分工3有机团结面临的威胁A社会整体层面：最低共同意识的丧失B社会个体层面：极端的个人主义，它充分暴露了人的生物本性，而将人的社会性弃之一边所造成。,SOCIALSOLIDARITYANDDIVISIONOFLABOR,CONSEQUENCESOFLABORDIVISION1为个人意识和个性发展创造了空间，削弱了集体意识；2造成了社会各个组成部分的相互依赖；3分工破坏了以集体意识为基础的道德规范，却创造出了新的道德职业道德。,INTEGRATION,REGULATIONANDSUICIDE,INTEGRATION,REGULATIONANDSUICIDEIntegrationreferstothestrengthoftheattachmentthatwehavetosociety.Regulationreferstothedegreeofexternalconstraintonpeople.ForDurkheim,thetwosocialcurrentsarecontinuousvariables,andsuicideratesgoupwheneitherofthesecurrentsaretoolowortoohigh.Wethereforehavefourtypesofsuicide,asshowninTable.Ifintegrationishigh,Durkheimcallsthattypeofsuicidealtruistic.Lowintegrationresultsinanincreaseinegoisticsuicides.Fatalisticsuicideisassociatedwithhighregulation,andanomicsuicidewithlowregulation.,INTEGRATION,REGULATIONANDSUICIDE,INTEGRATION,REGULATIONANDSUICIDE,EGOISTICSUICIDEHighratesofegoisticsuicidearelikelytobefoundinthosesocietiesorgroupsinwhichtheindividualisnotwellintegratedintothelargersocialunit.Thislackofintegrationleadstoafeelingthattheindividualisnotpartofsociety,butthisalsomeansthatsocietyisnotpartoftheindividual.Durkheimbelievedthatthebestpartsofahumanbeingourmorality,values,andsenseofpurposecomefromsociety.Anintegratedsocietyprovidesuswiththesethings,aswellasageneralfeelingofmoralsupporttogetusthroughthedailysmallindignitiesandtrivialdisappointments.Withoutthis,weareliabletocommitsuicideatthesmallestfrustration.,INTEGRATION,REGULATIONANDSUICIDE,EGOISTICSUICIDEDurkheimsstatisticsalsoshowedthatsuicideratesgoupforthosewhoareunmarriedandthereforelessintegratedintoafamily,whereastheratesgodownintimesofnationalpoliticalcrisessuchaswarsandrevolutions,whensocialcausesandrevolutionaryornationalistfervorgivepeopleslifeagreatermeaning.Hearguesthattheonlythingthatallofthesehaveincommonistheincreasedfeelingofintegration.,INTEGRATION,REGULATIONANDSUICIDE,ALTRUISTICSUICIDEWhereasegoisticsuicideismorelikelytooccurwhensocialintegrationistooweak,altruisticsuicideismorelikelytooccurwhensocialintegrationistoostrong.Theindividualisliterallyforcedintocommittingsuicide.OnenotoriousexampleofaltruisticsuicidewasthemasssuicideofthefollowersoftheReverendJimJonesinJonestown,Guyana,in1978.Theyknowinglytookapoisoneddrinkandinsomecaseshadtheirchildrendrinkitaswell.TheyclearlywerecommittingsuicidebecausetheyweresotightlyintegratedintothesocietyofJonessfanaticalfollowers.Durkheimnotesthatthisisalsotheexplanationforthosewhoseektobemartyrs,asintheterroristattackofSeptember11,2001.Moregenerally,thosewhocommitaltruisticsuicidedosobecausetheyfeelthatitistheirdutytodoso.Durkheimarguedthatthisisparticularlylikelyinthemilitary,wherethedegreeofintegrationissostrongthattheindividualwillfeelthathehasdisgracedtheentiregroupbythemosttrivialoffailures.,INTEGRATION,REGULATIONANDSUICIDE,INTEGRATIONANDSUICIDEWhereashigherratesofegoisticsuicidestemfromincurablewearinessandsaddepression,theincreasedlikelihoodofaltruisticsuicidespringsfromhope,foritdependsonthebeliefinbeautifulperspectivesbeyondthislife.Whenintegrationislow,peoplewillcommitsuicidebecausetheyhavenogreatergoodtosustainthem.Whenintegrationishigh,theycommitsuicideinthenameofthatgreatergood.,INTEGRATION,REGULATIONANDSUICIDE,ANOMICSUICIDEThethirdmajorformofsuicidediscussedbyDurkheimisanomicsuicide,whichismorelikelytooccurwhentheregulativepowersofsocietyaredisrupted.Suchdisruptionsarelikelytoleaveindividualsdissatisfiedbecausethereislittlecontrolovertheirpassions,whicharefreetorunwildinaninsatiableraceforgratification.Ratesofanomicsuicidearelikelytorisewhetherthenatureofthedisruptionispositive(forexample,aneconomicboom)ornegative(aneconomicdepression).Eithertypeofdisruptionrendersthecollectivitytemporarilyincapableofexercisingitsauthorityoverindividuals.Suchchangesputpeopleinnewsituationsinwhichtheoldnormsnolongerapplybutnewoneshaveyettodevelop.Periodsofdisruptionunleashcurrentsofanomie-moodsofrootlessnessandnormlessnessandthesecurrentsleadtoanincreaseinratesofanomicsuicide.Thisisrelativelyeasytoenvisageinthecaseofaneconomicdepression.Theclosingofafactorybecauseofadepressionmayleadtothelossofajob,withtheresultthattheindividualiscutadriftfromtheregulativeeffectthatboththecompanyandthejobmayhavehad.Beingcutofffromthesestructuresorothers(forexample,family,religion,andstate)canleaveanindividualhighlyvulnerabletotheeffectsofcurrentsofanomie.,INTEGRATION,REGULATIONANDSUICIDE,ANOMICSUICIDESomewhatmoredifficulttoimagineistheeffectofaneconomicboom.Inthiscase,Durkheimarguedthatsuddensuccessleadsindividualsawayfromthetraditionalstructuresinwhichtheyareembedded.Theymayleadindividualstoquittheirjobs,movetoanewcommunity,perhapsevenfindanewspouse.Allthesechangesdisrupttheregulativeeffectofextantstructuresandleavetheindividualinboomperiodsvulnerabletoanomicsocialcurrents.Insuchacondition,peoplesactivityisreleasedfromregulationandeventheirdreamsarenolongerrestrained.Peopleinaneconomicboomseemtohavelimitlessprospects,andrealityseemsvaluelessbycomparisonwiththedreamsoffeveredimaginations.TheincreasesinratesofanomicsuicideduringperiodsofderegulationofsociallifeareconsistentwithDurkheimsviewsontheperniciouseffectofindividualpassionswhenfreedofexternalconstraint.Peoplethusfreedwillbecomeslavestotheirpassionsandasaresult,inDurkheimsview,commitawiderangeofdestructiveacts,includingkillingthemselves.,INTEGRATION,REGULATIONANDSUICIDE,FATALISTICSUICIDEWhereasanomicsuicideismorelikelytooccurinsituationsinwhichregulationistooweak,fatalisticsuicideismorelikelytooccurwhenregulationisexcessive.Durkheimdescribedthosewhoaremorelikelytocommitfatalisticsuicideaspersonswithfuturespitilesslyblockedandpassionsviolentlychokedbyoppressivediscipline.Theclassic