翻译教材 换言之 第二章.PPT

InOtherWords,PartOneEquivalenceatwordlevel,Whatisaword?,Thesmallestunitwhichwewouldexpecttoprocessindividualmeaningistheword.Definedloosely,thewordis“thesmallestunitoflanguagethatcanbeusedbyitself”(BolingerandSears,1968:43).,Isthereaone-to-onerelationshipbetweenwordandmeaning?,rebuild“re”and“build”tobuildagaindisbelieve“dis”and“believe”nottobelievetennisplayertenisci(Turkish)typepasaramaquina(Spanish)Thissuggeststhatthereisnoone-to-onecorrespondencebetweenorthographicwordsandelementsofmeaningwithinoracrosslanguage.,Morphemes(词素),theminimalformalelementofmeaninginlanguageAnimportantdifferencebetweenmorphemesandwordsisthatamorphemecannotbefurtheranalyzed.Itisimportanttokeepthisdistinctionclearlyinmindbecauseitcanbeusefulintranslation,particularlyindealingwithneologisms(新词，新义)inthesourcelanguage.,LexicalMeaning,Propositionalmeaning（命题意义）Expressivemeaning（表达意义）Presupposedmeaning（预设意义）Evokedmeaning（诱发意义）,Propositionalmeaning,Thepropositionalmeaningofawordoranutterancearisesfromtherelationbetweenitandwhatitreferstoordescribesinarealorimaginaryworld,asconceivedbythespeakersoftheparticularlanguagetowhichthewordorutterancebelongs.Itisthistypeofmeaningwhichprovidesthebasisonwhichwecanjudgeanutteranceastrueorfalse.,Expressivemeaning,Expressivemeaningcannotbejudgedastrueorfalse.Thisisbecauseexpressivemeaningrelatestothespeakersfeelingsorattituderatherthantowhatwordsandutterancesreferto.Forexample:DontcomplainandDontwhinge,Presupposedmeaning,Presupposedmeaningarisesfromco-occurrencerestrictions,i.e.restrictionsonwhatotherwordsorexpressionsweexpecttoseebeforeorafteraparticularlexicalunit.Theserestrictionsareoftwotypes:1.Selectionalrestrictions（选择性限制）:theseareafunctionofthepropositionalmeaningofaword.Weexpectahumansubjectfortheadjectivestudiousandaninanimateoneforgeometrical(几何的).2.Collocationalrestrictions（搭配性限制）:thesearesemanticallyarbitraryrestrictionswhichdonotfollowlogicallyfromthepropositionalmeaningofaword.Forinstance,inEnglish,teetharebrushed,butinGermanandItaliantheyarepolished,inPolishtheyarewashed,andinRussiantheyarecleaned.,Evokedmeaning,Evokedmeaningarisesfromdialectandregistervariation.Adialectisavarietyoflanguagewhichhascurrencywithinaspecificcommunityorgroupofspeakers.Itmaybeclassifiedononeofthefollowingbases:1.Geographical2.Temporal3.SocialRegisterisavarietyoflanguagethatalanguageuserconsidersappropriatetoaspecificsituation.Registervariationarisesfromvariationsinthefollowing:1.Fieldofdiscourse2.Tenorofdiscourse3.Modeofdiscourse,Theproblemofnon-equivalence,1.Semanticfieldandlexicalsets-thesegmentationofexperience2.Non-equivalenceatwordlevelandsomecommonstrategiesfordealingwithit,Semanticfieldandlexicalsetsthesegmentationofexperience,Itissometimesusefultoviewthevocabularyofalanguageasasetofwordsreferringtoaseriesofconceptualfields.Thesefieldsreflectthedivisionsandsub-divisionsimposedbyagivenlinguisticcommunityonthecontinuumofexperience.Inlinguistics,thedivisionsarecalledsemanticfields(语义场).Fieldsareabstractconcepts.Anexampleofasemanticfieldwouldbethefieldofspeech,orplants,orvehicles.Alargenumberofsemanticfieldsarecommontoallormostlanguages.Most,ifnotall,languageswillhavefieldsofdistance,size,shape,time,emotion,believes,academicsubjects,andnaturalphenomena.Theactualwordsandexpressionsundereachfieldaresometimescalledlexicalsets(词集).,语义场,语义场理论是语义学研究的一个重要成果，最早由德国语言学家J.Trier提出。他认为在一种语言中，每个词都身居其亲属概念之间，这些词相互之间以及他们共同特指的那个词一起构成了一个自成系统的整体，这种结构可称为词场，即语义场。他主张把词汇当网络，研究词汇在网络中的相互关系。王寅认为语义场是由具有某些共同语义特征的一群词类聚合而成的场。总之，语义场理论的基本内涵是：语言中的词汇在语义上是相互联系的，他们构成一个完整的系统，其中某些词在一个共同概念的支配下，构成一个语义场。,由于语义场的存在，我们只有通过分析和比较词与词之间的关系，才能恰当确定一个词的真正意义。任何一种语言都包含大量语义场，这些语义场由于彼此间意义不同，词义关系也就不同，因而分成很多类。在英语中，语义场主要分成四种类型：上下义义场(hyponymy)整体与部分义场(part/wholerelationship)同义义场(synonymy)反义义场(antonymy),Itseemsreasonabletosuggestthatthemoredetailedasemanticfieldisinagivenlanguage,themoredifferentitislikelytobefromrelatedsemanticfieldsinotherlanguages.,Therearetwomainareasinwhichanunderstandingofsemanticfieldsandlexicalsetscanbeusefultoatranslator:,a.appreciatingthevaluethatawordhasinagivensystem;andb.developingstrategiesfordealingwithnon-equivalence.,(a)Understandingthedifferenceinthestructureofsemanticfieldsinthesourceandtargetlanguagesallowsatranslatortoassessthevalueofagiveniteminalexicalset.Ifyouknowwhatotheritemsareavailableinalexicalsetandhowtheycontrastwiththeitemchosenbyawriterorspeaker,youcanappreciatethesignificanceofthewritersorspeakerschoice.Youcanunderstandnotonlywhatsomethingis,butalsowhatitisnot.Thisisbestillustratedbythefollowingexample：Inthefieldoftemperature,Englishhasfourmaindivisions:cold,cool,hotandwarm.ThiscontrastswithModernArabic,whichhasfourdifferentdivisions:baarid(cold/cool),haar(hot:oftheweather),saakhin(hot:ofobjects),anddaafi(warm).,(b)Semanticfieldsarearrangedhierarchically,goingfromthemoregeneraltothemorespecific.Thegeneralwordisusuallyreferredtoassuperordinateandthespecificwordashyponym.InthefieldofVEHICLES,vehicleisasuperordinateandbus,car,truck,coach,etc.areallhyponymsofvehicle.Itstandstoreasonthatanypropositionalmeaningcarriedbyasuperordinateorgeneralwordis,bynecessity,partofthemeaningofeachofitshyponyms,butnotviceversa.Ifsomethingisabus,thenitmustbeavehicle,butnottheotherwayround.Wecansometimesmanipulatethisfeatureofsemanticfieldswhenwearefacedwithsemanticgapsinthetargetlanguage.Translatorsoftendealwithsemanticgapsbymodifyingasuperordinatewordorbymeansofcircumlocutionsbasedonmodifyingsuperordinates.,Tosumup,thenotionofsemanticfieldscanprovidethetranslatorwithusefulstrategiesfordealingwithnon-equivalenceinsomecontexts.Itisalsousefulinheighteningourawarenessofsimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenanytwolanguagesandofthesignificanceofanychoicemadebyaspeakerinagivencontext.,Oneimportantthingtobearinmindwhendealingwithsemanticfieldsisthattheyarenotfixed.Semanticfieldsarealwayschanging,withnewwordsandexpressionsbeingintroducedintothelanguageandothersbeingdroppedastheybecomelessrelevanttotheneedsofalinguisticcommunity.,Commonproblemsofnon-equivalence,Culture-specificconceptsThesource-languageconceptisnotlexicalizedinthetargetlanguageEg：savoury开胃菜3.Thesource-languagewordissemanticallycomplexEg：arruao,aBrazilianword“clearingthegroundundercoffeetreesofrubbishandpilingitinthemiddleoftherowinordertoaidintherecoveryofbeansdroppedduringharvesting”(ITINews,1988:57).4.Thesourceandtargetlanguagesmakedifferentdistinctionsinmeaning,5.Thetargetlanguagelacksasuperordinate6.Thetargetlanguagelacksaspecificterm（hyponym下义词）Eg:a.housevilla（别墅）,chalet（瑞士山中小木屋）,cottage（村舍）,lodge（临时住宿处，门房）,etc.b.articlereport,review,commentary,survey,etc.7.DifferencesinphysicalorinterpersonalperspectiveEg:pairsofwords:come/go,take/bring,arrive/depart8.Differencesinexpressivemeaning9.Differencesinform10.Differencesinfrequencyandpurposeofusingspecificforms11.Theuseofloanwordsinthesourcetext,Strategiesusedbyprofessionaltranslators,1.Translationbyamoregeneralword(superordinate)Thisisoneofthecommoneststrategiesfordealingwithmanytypesofnonequivalence,particularlyintheareaofpropositionalmeaning.Itworksequallywellinmost,ifnotall,languages,sincethehierarchicalstructureofsemanticfieldsisnotlanguage-specific.,Examples：(1)Sourcetext(ChinasPandaReserves):Todaytheremaybenomorethan1000giantpandasleftinthewild,restrictedtoafewmountainstrongholdsintheChineseprovincesofSichuan,ShaanxiandGansu.Targettext(back-translatedfromChinese):Todaytheremaybeonly1000bigpandaswhichstillremaininthewildstate,restrictedtocertainmountainareasinChinasSichuan,ShaanxiandGansu.(2)Sourcetext:翠翠睨着腰背微驼的祖父，不说什么话。(沈从文边城2011：65)Targettext:Emeraldlooksinsilenceathiswhitehairandbentback.(杨宪益戴乃迭2011：64),2.Translationbyamoreneutral/lessexpressiveword,Examples：(1)Sourcetext(ChinasPandaReserves):ManyofthespeciesgrowingwildherearefamiliartousasplantscultivatedinEuropeangardensspecieslikethisexoticlily.Targettext(back-translatedfromChinese):Weareveryfamiliarwithmanyvarietiesofthewildlifehere,theyarethekindgrowninEuropeangardensvarietieslikethisstrangeuniquelilyflower.(2)Sourcetext:祖父抿着嘴把头摇摇，装成狡猾神气得意笑着，把扎在腰带上的那枚单铜子取出，送给翠翠。(沈从文边城2011：63)Targettext:Hepurseshislipsandshakeshisheadwithaknowingwink,thenextractsfromhisgirdletheten-centcoinhehaskeptandgivesittoher.(杨宪益戴乃迭2011：62),3.Translationbyculturalsubstitution,Thisstrategyinvolvesreplacingaculture-specificitemorexpressionwithatarget-languageitemwhichdoesnothavethesamepropositionalmeaningbutislikelytohaveasimilarimpactonthetargetreader.Themainadvantageofusingthisstrategyisthatitgivesthereaderaconceptwithwhichs/hecanidentify,somethingfamiliarandappealing.Example：轿子saloon（小轿车），sedanchair象棋chess（国际象棋），Chinesechess,4.Translationusingaloanwordorloanwordplusexplanation,Thisstrategyisparticularlycommonindealingwithculture-specificitems,modernconcepts,andbuzzwords.Followingtheloanwordwithanexplanationisveryusefulwhenthewordinquestionisrepeatedseveraltimesinthetext.Onceexplained,theloanwordcanthenbeusedonitsown;thereadercanunderstanditandisnotdistractedbyfurtherlengthyexplanations.Example：Sourcetext：十六个结实如牛犊的小伙子，带了香，烛，鞭炮同一个用生牛皮蒙好绘有朱红太极图的高脚鼓，到了搁船的河上游山洞边(沈从文边城2011：35)Targettext：Sixteenyoungsters,strongasyoungoxen,carryingcandles,fire-crackersandabigoxhidedrumpaintedwithareddiagramoftheyinandyang（ATaoistsign）,marchthroughthehillstowheretheirboatiskept(杨宪益戴乃迭2011：34),5.Translationbyparaphraseusingarelateword,Thisstrategytendstobeusedwhentheconceptexpressedbythesourceitemislexicalizedinthetargetlanguagebutinadifferentform,andwhenthefrequencywithwhichacertainformisusedinthesourcetextissignificantlyhigherthanwouldbenaturalinthetargetlanguage.Example:Sourcetext(ChinasPandaReserves):Thereisstrongevidence,however,thatgiantpandasarerelatedtothebears.Targettext(back-translatedfromChinese):Butthereisratherstrongevidencethatshowsthatbigpandashaveakinshiprelationwiththebears.,6.Translationbyparaphraseusingunrelatedwords,Iftheconceptexpressedbythesourceitemisnotlexicalizedatallinthetargetlanguage,theparaphrasestrategycanstillbeusedinsomecontexts.Insteadofarelatedword,theparaphrasemaybebasedonmodifyingasuperord